tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-74923177114784783032024-02-18T20:45:38.594-08:00AVIATIONTangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.comBlogger17125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-36151326244259482592013-02-07T19:26:00.001-08:002016-01-29T20:38:03.938-08:00Air Traffic ControlATC Facilities
The Air Traffic Control (ATC) system is run by the Federal Aviation Administration, an agency of the U.S. Department of Transportation. The government developed the system primarily to maintain safe separation of aircraft flying over the United States and in and out of U.S. airports. Secondarily, it is ATC's job to keep aircraft traffic moving as efficiently as possible throughout the system. In short, ATC is aviation's traffic cop, working to ensure that aircraft do not run into each other and that traffic moves in an orderly fashion with minimum delays.<br />
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There are several types of ATC facilities. These include the airport towers familiar to most travelers, terminal radar approach control facilities (TRACONs), en route centers and flight service stations.<br />
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The airport towers control aircraft while they taxi to and from runways and during takeoffs and landings. The FAA bases its decision to build and operate a tower on the number and type of aircraft operations at a given airport. More than 450 U.S. airports currently have such towers.
TRACONs control the aircraft immediately prior to and after landings and takeoffs, or during the climb and descent phases of flight.<br />
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There are 236 TRACONs, less than the number of towers because some TRACONs handle more than one airport. For example, a single TRACON handles the traffic approaching and departing from all three New York-area major airports.<br />
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The 21 ATC centers cover even broader areas. Their job is to keep track of aircraft while they are en route or during the high-altitude cruise phase of their flights. They are located in Albuquerque, Anchorage, Atlanta, Boston, Chicago (the busiest center), Cleveland, Denver, Fort Worth, Houston, Indianapolis, Jacksonville, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Memphis, Miami, Minneapolis, New York, Oakland, Salt Lake City, Seattle and Washington, D.C.
Flight service stations are information centers for pilots flying in and out of small cities and rural areas.<br />
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Currently, there are 68 of these stations providing such things as weather reports and route and terrain information. In addition, flight service stations assist in emergency situations, initiating and coordinating searches for missing or overdue aircraft.
Central Flow Control
Another key facility, overseeing the entire ATC system, is FAA's Air Traffic Control System Command Center (ATCSCC), also known as central flow control and located in Herndon, Virginia. Its job is to look for situations that will create bottlenecks or other problems in the system, then respond with a management plan for traffic into and out of the troubled sector. For example, if bad weather develops or a runway is closed for repairs, ATCSCC will manage the number of aircraft operations into and out of the affected area.<br />
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The objective is to keep traffic levels in the trouble spots manageable for the controllers.
Tracking Systems
ATC primarily uses radar to keep track of aircraft flying over the United States. Radar transmits radio waves of ultra-high frequency that bounce back to their source when they hit something solid. The return signal, or radar echo, is then analyzed by the receiver to determine both the distance and direction of the object hit. In the case of airplanes, a transponder aboard the plane senses the radar signal and responds with an amplified radio signal directed toward the source of the signal received. The return signal not only is stronger, but contains a discreet four-digit code that identifies the aircraft to a ground radar station. A type of transponder known as Mode C, which is used aboard all commercial jets, also is capable of encoding the aircraft's altitude onto the return signal. Controllers on the ground then know how far away the aircraft is, how high it is, the direction it is headed, the airline operating the flight, and the type of aircraft at which they are looking. In the future, satellites are expected to supplant ground-based radar as the primary means for keeping track of airplanes.
Communications
Flight crews and air traffic controllers communicate by radio using VHF frequencies between 118 and 136 megahertz. Pilots tune to the frequency of the controller tracking their flight, and switch frequencies, as they move through the system and are handed off from one controller to another.<br />
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A Typical Flight
From the standpoint of ATC, all airline flights begin with the flight plan, which spells out the route the flight crew plans to follow, alternative airports the crew would use in the event of an aircraft emergency or a problem at the intended destination, as well as the amount of fuel onboard the aircraft. For some flights, the pilot puts together the flight plan and submits it to ATC, via their dispatcher, just prior to flight. Many airlines which fly the same routes every day, however, keep flight plans stored in the FAA's computer and merely activate them through their dispatch system prior to flight. In any event, a flight plan provides crucial information to ATC about what a particular crew intends to do.
Once the pilots have completed their pre-flight planning and aircraft inspections and have settled into the cockpit, they make their first call to ATC. Typically, this call is made to clearance delivery, which goes over the ATC routes and instructions the crew can expect from takeoff to landing. Ideally, this information matches the route requested in the flight plan, but that is not always the case.<br />
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ATC sometimes has other ideas, and may give pilots new instructions before and even during a flight.
When a crew is ready to depart, it contacts ground control for permission to leave the gate. Airlines sometimes conduct their own ground control at their hubs, but only in the immediate area of their gates. Once an aircraft leaves a gate area and begins to taxi toward a runway, it comes under the jurisdiction of FAA ground control, which governs the movement of all vehicles around an airfield.
Since aircraft must occasionally taxi across an active runway, ground control coordinates its instructions with tower control, which oversees all movements across or along runways.<br />
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The tower assumes full control of the aircraft as soon as it reaches the end of the runway it will use for takeoff. When the runway is clear, the tower grants permission for takeoff. It also instructs the crew on the heading, or direction, it should follow immediately after takeoff.
When safely airborne, tower control hands off the aircraft to departure control, which oversees the flight as it climbs away from the airport and enters the en route airspace. Given the speed and climb capabilities of modern jets, this may only take a few minutes. Departure control then turns over the flight to an en route center.
All of these and subsequent handoffs are accomplished by radio. The controller who is handing off the flight instructs the crew to contact the next level of ATC surveillance, and gives them the radio frequency they need to do that. Once contacted, a receiving controller acknowledges radar contact with the plane and issues instructions for heading and altitude.<br />
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Depending on where the plane is going, it may be handed off many times, from one en route controller to another, during the course of its flight. En route controllers are assigned to specific geographic areas, and they work to maintain the safe separation of aircraft only in their sector of airspace.
Aircraft separation standards vary according to circumstances. Above 29,000 feet, when aircraft are cruising at high speeds in the en route airspace, the standard is five miles of horizontal radar separation or 2,000 feet of vertical separation. Below 29,000 feet in the en route airspace, the vertical separation is reduced to 1,000 feet while the horizontal radar separation remains at five miles. When aircraft are moving at much slower speeds as they depart or approach an airport, the standard is three miles of horizontal radar separation or 1,000 feet of vertical separation. In certain oceanic airspace, vertical separation has been reduced to 1,000 feet at altitudes above 29,000 feet. Eventually, this reduction will follow in domestic airspace as well.<br />
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As a flight crew approaches its destination airport and begins its descent, it is instructed to contact approach control. An approach controller will issue maneuver instructions to the crew to integrate the aircraft into the flow of other aircraft arriving at the airport. As soon as the crew is on its final, straight-in approach, the approach controller hands the aircraft off to the airport tower, which grants final clearance to land and monitors the aircraft until it completes its landing and exits the runway. A ground controller then directs the aircraft to its gate.
While all commercial airline aircraft are controlled every step of the way, the same level of positive control does not always extend to general aviation aircraft. These aircraft can, and often do, fly in uncontrolled airspace, outside the ATC system. In general, these uncontrolled spaces are areas below the cruise lanes used by commercial airline aircraft, and outside the airspace the airlines use on takeoff and approach to landing at the 450 plus airports with FAA control towers. Since aircraft climb and descend at an angle, the controlled airspace above an airport resembles the conical shape of a giant, upside down wedding cake over the airport property.<br />
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General aviation aircraft are allowed to fly under visual flight rules, or VFR, when weather and visibility are good. They do not have to file a flight plan, and they do not have to be in touch with air traffic control, unless they choose to operate in or out of an airport with a control tower. Under VFR, pilots are responsible for maintaining adequate separation from other aircraft, which is why these rules sometimes are called the see and be seen rules.
Instrument flight rules, or IFR, on the other hand, are the rules under which general aviation aircraft must fly in bad weather and low visibility. Pilots must be in contact with ATC and must file a flight plan. They also must be instrument rated, meaning they are proficient at navigating and flying their aircraft using cockpit instruments only, without benefit of good visibility out of the cockpit windows. Commercial airline flights always operate under instrument flight rules, regardless of weather, since they operate solely within the ATC system.<br />
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Controller Training
All air traffic controllers work for the FAA and all must go through a screening process and rigorous training before they are certified to control airplanes. Typically, applicants who pass through initial screening, go first to the FAA training academy in Oklahoma City. On completion of that program, they are assigned to an actual ATC station where they receive extensive on-the-job training.<br />
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Among other things, controllers must master traffic management techniques, communication skills, and knowledge of the specific area they are overseeing.
Airport and Airway Trust Fund
In 1970, Congress created the Aviation Trust Fund to pay for improvements to airports and the ATC system, such as new runways and taxiways, control towers, landing aids, radar systems, etc. In the years since, Congress also has authorized the use of trust fund money for FAA operating costs, such as the salaries of controllers.<br />
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The money in the fund comes from taxes and fees paid by users of the aviation system, primarily air travelers and shippers. Congress has raised the taxes several times. By 1994, travelers were paying a tax on all domestic tickets and shippers were paying a tax on their freight bills. Altogether, these and related aviation taxes and fees collected from U.S. airlines in FY99 totaled $21 billion.
Delays, Modernization and Corporatization
Because ATC is involved in the movement of all commercial airline aircraft, the capabilities and efficiencies of ATC has a direct bearing on the schedule performance of the airlines.<br />
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An equipment glitch or personnel shortage at an ATC facility, for example, usually means that the flights it handles will be delayed because the controllers get behind in their work. They cannot process the flights fast enough to prevent a backup of traffic on the taxiways or at the airport gates. Bad weather, of course, is the primary cause of most back-ups, but deficiencies in the ATC system itself also play a major role in airline delays.
In recent years, there have been an average 900 daily flight delays of 15 minutes or more.<br />
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The cost of these delays to the airlines and their customers is estimated at more than $5 billion annually. That is the estimated cost of the extra fuel that aircraft have burned waiting their turn to take off, the extra crew costs incurred from delayed flights, the cost of buying or leasing the additional planes needed to maintain service in a congested system that reduces equipment utilization, the cost to passengers of extra nights on the road due to missed connections, and many other costs related to the delay problem.<br />
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When air travel and service soared following deregulation, the FAA began a massive modernization effort intended to bring the ATC system up to where it needed to be, in order to handle air traffic efficiently. However, the effort quickly bogged down and remains troubled, with little to show in terms of reducing airline delays.
The concept of a federal corporation to run ATC, more along the lines of a modern business, was advanced by the airlines in the mid-1980s.<br />
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However, the idea met considerable opposition at that time, and again in 1994, when the Clinton Administration advanced its own version of the concept.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-71443220401126791192013-02-07T19:24:00.000-08:002016-01-29T20:21:48.541-08:00Airline Glossary<b>Aileron </b><br />
A control surface located on the trailing edge of each wing tip. Deflection of these surfaces controls the roll or bank angle of the aircraft. <br />
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<b>Airfoil </b><br />
Any surface such as an airplane wing, aileron, or rudder designed to obtain a useful reaction from the air moving past it.<br />
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<b>Airworthiness </b><br />
A term used to describe both the legal and mechanical status of an aircraft with regard to its readiness for flight.<br />
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<b>Altimeter </b><br />
An instrument which displays the altitude above mean sea level (MSL) of an aircraft.<br />
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<b>Artificial Horizon </b><br />
An instrument which enables a pilot to determine the attitude of the aircraft in relation to the horizon, i.e. whether the aircraft is nose-up, nose-down, or banking left or right.<br />
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<b>Available Seat Mile (ASM) </b><br />
One seat flown one mile. An airliner with 100 passenger seats, flown a distance of 100 miles, represents 10,000 available seat miles (ASMs).<br />
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<b>Aviation Trust Fund </b><br />
Fund established by Congress to pay for improvements to the nation's airports and air traffic control system. Money in the fund comes solely from users of the system - primarily a tax on domestic airline tickets.<br />
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<b>Cargo </b><br />
Anything other than passengers, carried for hire, including both mail and freight.<br />
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<b>Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) </b><br />
A device that records the sounds audible in the cockpit, as well as all radio transmissions made and received by the aircraft, and all intercom and public address announcements made in the aircraft. It generally is a continuous loop recorder that retains the sounds of the last 30 minutes.<br />
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<b>Codesharing </b><br />
A marketing practice in which two airlines share the same two-letter code used to identify carriers in the computer reservation systems used by travel agents.<br />
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<b>Combi </b><br />
A type of aircraft whose main deck is divided into two sections, one of which is fitted with seats and one which is used for cargo.<br />
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<b>Compressor </b><br />
A fan-like disk, or several disks, at the front end of a jet engine that draws air into the engine and compresses the air. The compressed air is then passed into a combustion chamber where it is mixed with fuel and burned, producing thermodynamic energy.<br />
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<b>Computer Reservation System (CRS) </b><br />
A system for reserving seats on commercial flights electronically. Several airlines own and market such systems, which are used by travel agents.<br />
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<b>Connecting Flight </b><br />
A flight requiring passengers to change aircraft and/or airlines at an intermediate stop.<br />
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<b>Deregulation </b><br />
The term commonly used in referring to the Airlines Deregulation Act of 1978, which ended government regulation of airline routes and rates.<br />
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<b>Direct Flight </b><br />
A flight with one or more intermediate stops, but no change of aircraft.<br />
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<b>Dispatcher </b><br />
An airline employee who is responsible for authorizing the departure of an aircraft. The dispatcher must ensure, among other things, that the aircraft's crew have all the proper information necessary for their flight and that the aircraft is in proper mechanical condition.<br />
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<b>Elevator </b><br />
A control surface, usually on the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer, which is used to control the pitch attitude of an aircraft. Movement of the elevator will force the nose of an aircraft up or down.<br />
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<b>Empennage </b><br />
A collective term that refers to all of the various tail surfaces of an aircraft, i,e., the vertical and horizontal stabilizers.
Enplanements
The number of passengers boarding a flight, including origination, stopovers and connections.<br />
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<b>En Route Center </b><br />
Formally known as an Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), it houses the air traffic controllers and equipment needed to identify and direct aircraft, primarily during the en route portion of their flights.<br />
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<b>Essential Air Service
Government </b><br />
subsidized airline service to rural areas of the United States, which continued after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978.<br />
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<b>Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) </b><br />
The government agency responsible for air safety and operation of the air traffic control system. The FAA also administers a program which provides grants from the Airport and Airway Trust Fund for airport development.<br />
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<b>Flaps </b><br />
Control surfaces installed on the trailing edge of a wing and used to increase the amount of lift generated by the wing at slower speeds. Flaps also have the effect of slowing an aircraft during its landing approach.<br />
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<b>Flight Data Recorder (FDR) </b><br />
Records pertinent technical information about a flight. An FDR will record information about the performance of various aircraft systems, as well as the aircraft's speed, altitude, heading and other flight parameters. Like a cockpit voice recorder (CVR), a flight data recorder is designed to withstand the forces of a crash so that its information may be used to reconstruct the circumstances leading up to the accident (in some cases, a digital flight data recorder, or DFDR).<br />
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<b>Flight Deck </b><br />
Also called the cockpit, it the section of an aircraft where pilots sit and control the aircraft.<br />
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<b>Flight Plan </b><br />
A required planning document that covers the expected operational details of a flight such as destination, route, fuel on board, etc. It is filed with the appropriate FAA air traffic control facility. There are both VFR and IFR flight plans. VFR plans are not mandatory.<br />
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<b>Flight Service Station (FSS) </b><br />
An FAA facility that provides specialized flight-related services to pilots. It can provide weather briefings and en route advisories, among other things.<br />
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<b>Freight </b><br />
All air cargo excluding mail.<br />
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<b>Freight-Ton Mile </b><br />
A ton of freight moved one mile. It is the standard measure of air freight activity.<br />
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<b>Frequent-Flyer Programs </b><br />
Airline marketing programs designed to win customer loyalty by giving them "points" for each mile flown. Points can be cashed in later for free flights or upgrades in cabin service, or in some instances, non-airline services or items.<br />
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<b>Fuselage </b><br />
The main body of an aircraft, cylindrical in shape. It contains the cockpit, main cabin and cargo compartments.<br />
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<b>Glideslope </b><br />
The ideal descent path to a runway. It can be electronically defined by radio signals transmitted from the ground. An aircraft carrying a special radio receiver can detect this electronic glidepath and follow it down to the runway.<br />
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<b>Horizontal Stabilizer </b><br />
The small wings at the rear of an aircraft's fuselage that balance the lift forces generated by the main wings farther forward on the fuselage. The stabilizer also usually contains the elevator.<br />
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<b>Hub and Spoke </b><br />
A system for deploying aircraft that enables a carrier to increase service options at all airports encompassed by the system. It entails the use of a strategically located airport (the hub) as a passenger exchange point for flights to and from outlying towns and cities (the spokes).<br />
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<b>Hypersonic Flight </b><br />
Flight conducted at speeds greater than Mach 5, or five times the speed of sound.<br />
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<b>Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) </b><br />
Rules governing flight in certain limited visibility and cloud conditions. Under IFR, an aircraft is required to be in contact with air traffic control facilities and is separated by ATC from all other IFR aircraft.<br />
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<b>Instrument Landing System (ILS) </b><br />
Provides radio-based horizontal and vertical guidance to an aircraft approaching a runway. It is used to guide landing aircraft during conditions of low visibility.<br />
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<b>Jetway </b><br />
A registered trademark for a certain kind of aircraft loading bridge which allows passengers direct, protected access to an aircraft from the terminal.<br />
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<b>Knot </b><br />
An abbreviation for one nautical mile per hour. Since a nautical mile is 15 percent longer than a statute mile, a speed expressed in knots is 15% higher than it would be if expressed in miles per hour.<br />
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<b>Lift </b><br />
The force generated by the movement of air across the wings of an aircraft. When enough lift is generated to overcome the weight of an aircraft, the aircraft rises.<br />
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<b>Load Factor </b><br />
The percentage of available seats that are filled with paying passengers, or the percent of freight capacity that is utilized. Technically, revenue passenger miles divided by available seat miles or cargo ton miles divided by available cargo ton miles.<br />
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<b>Major Carrier </b><br />
An airline with annual revenue of more than $1 billion.<br />
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<b>Minimum Equipment List (MEL) </b><br />
A list of aircraft equipment that must be in good working order before an aircraft may legally take off with passengers. Repairs to some items not essential to an aircraft's airworthiness may be deferred for limited periods of time approved by the FAA.<br />
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<b>National Carrier </b><br />
An airline with annual revenues of between $100 million and $1 billion.<br />
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<b>Nonstop Flight </b><br />
A flight with no intermediate stops.<br />
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<b>Part 121 of the Federal Aviation Regulations </b><br />
The FAA safety regulations covering operators of aircraft with 10 or more seats.<br />
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<b>Part 135 of the Federal Aviation Regulations </b><br />
The FAA safety regulations covering operators of aircraft with fewer than 10 seats.<br />
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<b>PFC </b><br />
A tax authorized by Congress, approved by the Federal Aviation Administration, assessed by airports, and collected by airlines as an add-on to the passenger airfare. It is designed to help pay for airport improvements that enhance safety and capacity and is not revenue for airlines.<br />
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<b>Pitch </b><br />
A description of the movement of the nose of an aircraft up or down, in relation to its previous altitude.<br />
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<b>Pressurized Aircraft </b><br />
An aircraft that is kept at a designated atmospheric pressure so passengers and crew can breath normally.<br />
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<b>Propfan </b><br />
One of several terms used to describe new generations of jet engines which typically turn very large, multi-bladed propeller-like fans in order to produce the thrust needed for flight.<br />
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<b>Pylon </b><br />
The part of an aircraft's structure which connects an engine to either a wing or the fuselage.<br />
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<b>Radar </b><br />
Term coined from the phrase "Radio Detecting and Ranging." It is based on the principle that ultra-high frequency radio waves travel at a precise speed and are reflected from objects they strike. It is used to determine an object's direction and distance.<br />
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<b>Ramp </b><br />
The aircraft parking area at an airport, usually adjacent to a terminal.<br />
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<b>Regional Carrier </b><br />
An airline with annual revenues of less than $100 million whose service generally is limited to a particular geographic region.<br />
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<b>Revenue Passenger Mile (RPM) </b><br />
One paying passenger flown one mile. It is the principal measure of airline passenger traffic.<br />
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<b>Rudder </b><br />
A control surface, usually installed on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, which controls the yaw motion of the aircraft - that is, the motion of the nose of the aircraft left and right.<br />
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<b>Seat Pitch </b><br />
The distance between seats in an aircraft's passenger cabin as measured from any point on a given seat to the corresponding point on the seat in front of or behind it.<br />
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<b>Simulator </b><br />
A ground-based device used to train pilots which simulates flight scenarios, including emergency situations.<br />
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<b>Slats </b><br />
Special surfaces attached to or actually part of the leading edge of the wing. During takeoff and landing, they are extended to produce extra lift.<br />
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<b>Speed Brakes </b><br />
Also known as air brakes, they are surfaces that are normally flush with the wing or fuselage in which they are mounted, but which can be extended into the airflow to create more drag and slow the aircraft.<br />
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<b>Spoilers </b><br />
Special panels built into the upper surface of the wing that, when raised, "spoil" the flow of air across the wing and thereby reduce the amount of lift generated. They are useful for expediting a descent.<br />
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<b>Stage 2 Aircraft </b><br />
Term used to describe jets which meet Stage 2 Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 36 noise parameters on takeoff and landing.<br />
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<b>Stage 3 Aircraft </b><br />
Term used to describe aircraft that meet quieter Stage 3 noise requirements under FAR Part 36.<br />
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<b>Stall
Results </b><br />
when a wing exceeds its angle of attack (angle between airfoil and relative flow of wind), the airflow is disrupted, and the wing no longer produces lift, with sudden drop and possible loss of control.<br />
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<b>Supersonic Flight </b><br />
Flight at speeds greater than the speed of sound, which varies according to altitude but which is more than 700 miles per hour at sea level.<br />
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<b>Terminal Control Area (TCA) </b><br />
A designated zone around and above the busiest airports. A flight in TCAs carries stringent requirements for pilot experience, aircraft equipment and communications capability.<br />
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<b>Terminal Radar Approach Control Facility (TRACON) </b><br />
Controls aircraft immediately after and prior to landings and takeoffs, or during the climb and approach phases of flight.<br />
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<b>Thrust </b><br />
The force produced by a jet engine or propeller. As defined by Newtonian physics, it is the forward reaction to the rearward movement of a jet exhaust.<br />
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<b>Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) </b><br />
Installed in commercial jets to search for and alert pilots to the presence of other aircraft. Enhanced versions of TCAS also advise pilots on actions to take to avoid aircraft that are getting too close.<br />
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<b>Transponder </b><br />
An electronic device that "responds" to interrogation by ground-based radar with a special four-digit code that specifically identifies the aircraft on which it is located. Certain transponders have the ability to transmit automatically the altitude of the aircraft in addition to the special code.<br />
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<b>Turbofan </b><br />
A type of jet engine in which a certain portion of the engine's airflow bypasses the combustion chamber.<br />
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<b>Turbojet</b><br />
The original designation for a "pure" jet engine whose power is solely the result of its jet exhaust.<br />
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<b>Turboprop</b><br />
A type of engine that uses a jet engine to turn a propeller. Turboprops are often used on regional and business aircraft because of their relative efficiency at speeds slower than, and altitudes lower than, those of a typical jet.<br />
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<b>Unducted Fan</b><br />
A kind of engine that uses the basic core of a jet engine to drive large, fan-like blades which produce the major thrust component of the engine. A propfan is one kind of unducted fan.<br />
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<b>Vertical Stabilizer</b><br />
The large "tail" surface normally found on top of the rear of the fuselage. The rudder is usually installed at the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer.<br />
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<b>Visual Flight Rules (VFR)</b><br />
Rules governing flight during periods of generally good visibility and limited cloud cover. Aircraft flying under VFR are not required to be in contact with air traffic controllers and are responsible for their own separation from other aircraft.<br />
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<b>Widebody Aircraft</b><br />
Generally considered to be any airliner with more than one aisle in the passenger cabin. Examples of widebody aircraft include the Boeing 747 767, and 777, the Lockheed L-1011, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Airbus Industries' A300 and A310. Technically, any aircraft with a fuselage diameter in excess of 200 inches may be considered a widebody.<br />
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<b>Windshear</b><br />
Weather phenomenon entailing a strong downdraft of air that can result in the loss of lift for an aircraft passing through it.<br />
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<b>Yaw</b><br />
A description of the movement of the nose of an aircraft from side to side, or left and right. Yaw motion is controlled by the vertical stabilizer and the rudder.<br />
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<b>Yield
Average</b><br />
revenue per revenue passenger mile or revenue ton mile, expressed in cents per mile.
Yield Management
Also known as revenue management, the process airlines use to set prices for a flight. The goal is to find the mix of seat prices that produces the most revenue.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-64072405826037723642013-02-07T19:22:00.002-08:002013-02-07T19:22:59.898-08:00Airline & the Environment
Fuel Efficiency
Fuel is the airline industry's second largest expense, exceeded only by labor. The major U.S. airlines spend more than $10 billion a year on fuel, which is approximately 10 percent of total operating expenses. As a result, increased fuel efficiency has been a top industry priority for many years, and the industry has made giant strides in that regard. Since deregulation, U.S. airlines have increased fuel efficiency nearly 65 percent by:
investing in new, environmentally efficient aircraft and engines;
lowering cruising speeds;
using computers to determine optimum fuel loads and to select altitudes and routes that minimize fuel burn;
using flight simulators rather than real aircraft for pilot training;
holding aircraft at gates, with engines shut down, when weather or other problems delay takeoff, when appropriate;
using only one engine to taxi;
keeping aircraft exteriors clean to minimize aerodynamic drag.
Most important, the airlines have invested, and continue to invest, billions of dollars in new aircraft and engines that are far more efficient than the models they replace. The Airbus A320 and Boeing 737-300, for example, transport twice as many revenue passenger miles per gallon of fuel than the DC-9 and earlier versions of the 737. In addition, they emit smaller amounts of the gases of concern to scientists studying global warming and other environmental issues.
The airlines, through international aviation planning groups, participate in various working groups on aviation environmental protection. These groups are looking at many options for the reduction of aviation emissions, including operational measures and market mechanisms. Airline representatives also have participated in the development of the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report on aviation's contribution to the atmosphere, the first international environmental examination of any sector. Further, U.S. airlines are participating in a voluntary EPA/FAA effort to study options for the reduction of NOx emissions below 3,000 feet.
Aircraft Emissions
Airline efforts to reduce emissions date back to the 1960s, with the earliest efforts focused on reducing the highly visible smoke emitted from jet engines. By the late 1960s, engine manufacturers developed cleaner-burning combustion chambers, and the dark streaks of smoke produced by the first generation of jets all but disappeared from view.
Rising fuel prices in the 1970s led to further reductions in emissions as airlines demanded (and got) more fuel-efficient cleaner engines and aircraft from the manufacturers. A study by the General Accounting Office, published in 1992, found that aircraft emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide declined 85 percent and 70 percent, respectively, between 1976 and 1988, as more fuel-efficient aircraft entered the fleet. Emissions of nitrogen oxide rose slightly during the period studied, by about 12 percent, because of the higher engine temperatures required to increase fuel efficiency and reduce other emissions. Compared with the first generation of jets, however, today's aircraft produce less than one-quarter of the total amount of these three pollutants (HC, CO and NOx) per landing and takeoff cycle.
Hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions result from incomplete combustion at the lower power settings used for descent, or when idling or taxiing on the ground. NOx, on the other hand, is produced when engines are at their hottest, such as during takeoffs and, to a lesser extent, during cruise, when jet engines also produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O).
While the increase in nitrogen oxide is a concern, it is important to note that aircraft emit small amounts of NOx relative to other sources - about 2-4 percent of total man-made NOx emissions. What's more, the engine manufacturers, the airlines, and the government are actively looking for ways to significantly reduce those emissions in the future. Since NOx results from burning petroleum products at very high temperatures, researchers are studying ways to lower the temperature inside a jet engine during high-power operations, without jeopardizing the fuel-efficiency gains and the reductions in other emissions achieved with the hotter engines. That is a real challenge, but several ideas appear promising, including new combustion chamber designs with features that lower peak temperatures at high power settings.
Aircraft emissions of carbon dioxide - the gas some scientists believe may cause global warming - also are minuscule compared to other man-made sources of CO2. Airlines account for less than 3 percent of total CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels such as wood, gas and oil.
To cut aircraft emissions of CO2 further, airlines would have to find a way to power their aircraft without burning fossil fuels, which appears impossible at this time, or make further gains in fuel efficiency, which is where they continue to focus their efforts. As engines become more efficient, they use less fuel and emit less carbon dioxide for every mile flown.
Aircraft Noise
Although many people do not associate noise with pollution, the noise produced by jets has been one of the airlines' biggest environmental challenges - one they have spent billions of dollars to address.
Key to their noise-reduction efforts has been the development and introduction of new technology over the past 25 years. Through various design changes, airframe manufacturers have successfully reduced the noise created by the displacement of air as jets move through the sky at high speeds. In addition, engine manufacturers have made great strides in reducing noise by reducing the velocity of engine exhaust.
As technological breakthroughs have occurred, airlines have replaced the oldest, noisiest jets with new ones that incorporate the new, quieter technology. The first generation of jets, such as the Boeing 707, were replaced during the 1970s with quieter, Stage 2 aircraft, such as the 727. Now, Stage 2 aircraft have been replaced with even quieter Stage 3 planes, such as the 757.
Today, only Stage 3 aircraft are flying. In 1990, Congress adopted a plan for phasing out Stage 2 operations by 2000. Airlines responded, meeting and even exceeding, the timetable for quieting the fleet to Stage 3 standards. As a result, according to FAA calculations, the number of the U.S. population exposed to unacceptable levels of aircraft noise declined from 7 million in 1975 to 600,000 in 2000.
The phase-out was an enormous undertaking, involving some 2,000 jets and more than $100 billion covering fleet replacement, retrofitting and growth.
Reducing noise at its source is important, but it is not the only way to lessen the impact of jet noise on communities around airports. Airlines, airports and the FAA are simultaneously pursuing other strategies.
For example, the FAA with airline support, provides grants to airports for soundproofing homes, schools, churches and other structures near airports. In some cases, airport operators are using federal grants to buy homes outright, then selling the property for commercial redevelopment that is more compatible with the airport.
Airlines, airports and the FAA also work together to route aircraft away from residential areas as much as possible when flying near the ground. Takeoffs and landings are routed over large bodies of water or industrial areas, for instance, if such areas are adjacent to an airport. In some cases, pilots also are instructed to adjust their power settings on takeoff - applying maximum power, to climb quickly while flying over non-residential areas near the airport, then reducing power and noise, when passing over residential areas further away.
Of course, all such efforts can be canceled out by poor planning and zoning decisions. If airports are to peacefully co-exist with their communities, it is essential that certain types of development, particularly houses, be separated from airports.
Airport/Maintenance-Base Emissions
The airlines have taken steps to eliminate or reduce emissions into the air and water from their activities at airports and maintenance bases. Among the most significant steps have been:
construction of drainage systems and holding ponds to capture the fluids used to de-ice aircraft so that those fluids can be treated before they seep into the ground or flow into streams, revers, lakes and other bodies of water near airports;
greater use of electric (rather than petroleum-powered) vehicles for towing aircraft and baggage carts around airport terminals;
greater use of trucks powered by less-polluting alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas for delivering overnight packages and letters to and from airports;
removal, or reconstruction, of underground fuel tanks to prevent leakage into ground water, construction of facilities for the treatment of waste water at maintenance hangars;
use of new, more environmentally-sensitive methods for stripping paint from aircraft;
implementation of new programs to better manage the disposal of toxic substances generated by maintenance bases;
use of smaller solvent containers, so that maintenance workers use no more solvent than necessary to perform their tasks;
adoption of new citrus-based and alkaline-based solvents and aqueous cleaners that pose less environmental risk than chlorinated solvents.
Recycling
The airlines have implemented a wide array of recycling programs to reduce the amount of solid waste they send to landfills and to conserve trees and other natural resources. Recycling activities include:
aluminum can recycling by flight attendants and caterers;
greater use of metal utensils and ceramic dishes (rather than plastic and paper) aboard aircraft;
paper recycling at airline offices;
use of engine oil from ground vehicles to heat maintenance shops;
recycling of old newspapers and magazines left aboard aircraft;
reclamation of glycol, the fluid used to de-ice aircraft, for re-use as a runway de-icer or as antifreeze for automobiles;
recycling of batteries, scrap metal and used aircraft parts at maintenance bases;
donations of unwanted, shelf-stable foods such as cereal and crackers to food banks for the poor;
donations to homeless shelters of partially used hotel soap and toiletries saved by flight attendants;
recycling of laser printer cartridges, video tapes and other used and unwanted office supplies.
Fuel Management and Clean-Up
The airlines have taken steps to better minimize releases of fuel into the environment and to cleanup historic fuel contamination. These steps include:
removal or reconstruction of underground fuel tanks, to prevent leakage into ground water;
in conjunction with the American Petroleum Institute, conducted an airport hydrant fuel system leak-detection technologies in the airport environment;
developed an airport-specific risk-based corrective action protocol to clean up historic airport contamination.
De-icing Fluid Management
The airlines have been developing a variety of methods to manage the environmental impacts of aircraft de-icing/anti-icing practices, which include:
where appropriate, construction of drainage systems and holding ponds to capture the fluids used to de-ice aircraft, so that those fluids can be treated before they seep into the ground or flow into streams, rivers, lakes and other bodies of water near airports;
development of best management practices to limit the amount of de-icing/anti-icing fluid used, consistent with safety concerns;
development of new de-icing procedures and products to limit the amount of de-icing/anti-icing fluid released into the environment;
factoring environmental considerations into purchasing decisions;
exploring ways to reduce environmentally harmful aspects of de-icing/anti-icing products.
Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-83619583495824887232011-05-05T07:31:00.001-07:002011-05-05T07:31:54.116-07:00CHICAGO CONVENTION OF 1944<b>CONVENTION<br />
ON INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION<br />
Signed at Chicago,<br />
on 7 December 19441 <br />
<br />
PREAMBLE<br />
</b><br />
WHEREAS the future development of international civil aviation can greatly help to create and preserve friendship and understanding among the nations and peoples of the world, yet its abuse can become a threat to the general security;<br />
<br />
WHEREAS it is desirable to avoid friction and to promote that cooperation between nations and peoples upon which the peace of the world depends;<br />
<br />
THEREFORE, the undersigned governments having agreed on certain principles and arrangements in order that international civil aviation may be developed in a safe and orderly manner and that international air transport services may be established on the basis of equality of opportunity and operated soundly and economically;<br />
<br />
Have accordingly concluded this Convention to that end. <br />
<br />
PART I<br />
AIR NAVIGATION <br />
<br />
CHAPTER I<br />
GENERAL PRINCIPLES<br />
AND APPLICATION OF THE CONVENTION <br />
<br />
Article 1<br />
Sovereignty<br />
<br />
The contracting States recognize that every State has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory. <br />
<br />
Article 2<br />
Territory<br />
<br />
For the purposes of this Convention the territory of a State shall be deemed to be the land areas and territorial waters adjacent thereto under the sovereignty, suzerainty, protection or mandate of such State. <br />
<br />
Article 3<br />
Civil and state aircraft<br />
<br />
(a) This Convention shall be applicable only to civil aircraft, and shall not be applicable to state aircraft.<br />
<br />
(b) Aircraft used in military, customs and police services shall be deemed to be state aircraft.<br />
<br />
(c) No state aircraft of a contracting State shall fly over the territory of another State or land thereon without authorization by special agreement or otherwise, and in accordance with the terms thereof. <br />
<br />
(d) The contracting States undertake, when issuing regulations for their state aircraft, that they will have due regard for the safety of navigation of civil aircraft. <br />
<br />
Article 3 bis2<br />
<br />
(a) The contracting States recognize that every State must refrain from resorting to the use of weapons against civil aircraft in flight and that, in case of interception, the lives of persons on board and the safety of aircraft must not be endangered. This provision shall not be interpreted as modifying in any way the rights and obligations of States set forth in the Charter of the United Nations.<br />
<br />
(b) The contracting States recognize that every State, in the exercise of its sovereignty, is entitled to require the landing at some designated airport of a civil aircraft flying above its territory without authority or if there are reasonable grounds to conclude that it is being used for any purpose inconsistent with the aims of this Convention; it may also give such aircraft any other instructions to put an end to such violations. For this purpose, the contracting States may resort to any appropriate means consistent with relevant rules of international law, including the relevant provisions of this Convention, specifically paragraph (a) of this article. Each contracting State agrees to publish its regulations in force regarding the interception of civil aircraft.<br />
<br />
(c) Every civil aircraft shall comply with an order given in conformity with paragraph (b) of this Article. To this end each contracting State shall establish all necessary provisions in its national laws or regulations to make such compliance mandatory for any civil aircraft registered in that State or operated by an operator who has his principal place of business or permanent residence in that State. Each contracting State shall make any violation of such applicable laws or regulations punishable by severe penalties and shall submit the case to its competent authorities in accordance with its laws or regulations.<br />
<br />
(d) Each contracting State shall take appropriate measures to prohibit the deliberate use of any civil aircraft registered in that State or operated by an operator who has his principal place of business or permanent residence in that State for any purpose inconsistent with the aims of this Convention. This provision shall not affect paragraph (a) or derogate from paragraphs (b) and (c) of this Article. <br />
<br />
Article 4<br />
Misuse of civil aviation<br />
<br />
Each contracting State agrees not to use civil aviation for any purpose inconsistent with the aims of this Convention. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER II<br />
FLIGHT OVER TERRITORY OF<br />
CONTRACTING STATES <br />
<br />
Article 5<br />
Right of non-scheduled flight<br />
<br />
Each contracting State agrees that all aircraft of the other contracting States, being aircraft not engaged in scheduled international air services shall have the right, subject to the observance of the terms of this Convention, to make flights into or in transit non-stop across its territory and to make stops for non-traffic purposes without the necessity of obtaining prior permission, and subject to the right of the State flown over to require landing. Each contracting State nevertheless reserves the right, for reasons of safety of flight, to require aircraft desiring to proceed over regions which are inaccessible or without adequate air navigation facilities to follow prescribed routes, or to obtain special permission for such flights.<br />
<br />
Such aircraft, if engaged in the carriage of passengers, cargo, or mail for remuneration or hire on other than scheduled international air services, shall also, subject to the provisions of Article 7, have the privilege of taking on or discharging passengers, cargo, or mail, subject to the right of any State where such embarkation or discharge takes place to impose such regulations, conditions or limitations as it may consider desirable. <br />
<br />
Article 6<br />
Scheduled air services<br />
<br />
No scheduled international air service may be operated over or into the territory of a contracting State, except with the special permission or other authorization of that State, and in accordance with the terms of such permission or authorization.3 <br />
<br />
Article 7<br />
Cabotage<br />
<br />
Each contracting State shall have the right to refuse permission to the aircraft of other contracting States to take on in its territory passengers, mail and cargo carried for remuneration or hire and destined for another point within its territory. Each contracting State undertakes not to enter into any arrangements which specifically grant any such privilege on an exclusive basis to any other State or an airline of any other State, and not to obtain any such exclusive privilege from any other State. <br />
<br />
Article 8<br />
Pilotless aircraft<br />
<br />
No aircraft capable of being flown without a pilot shall be flown without a pilot over the territory of a contracting State without special authorization by that State and in accordance with the terms of such authorization. Each contracting State undertakes to insure that the flight of such aircraft without a pilot in regions open to civil aircrarft shall be so controlled as to obviate danger to civil aircraft. <br />
<br />
Article 9<br />
Prohibited areas<br />
<br />
(a) Each contracting State may, for reasons of military necessity or public safety, restrict or prohibit uniformly the aircraft of other States from flying over certain areas of its territory, provided that no distinction in this respect is made between the aircraft of the State whose territory is involved, engaged in international scheduled airline services, and the aircraft of the other contracting States likewise engaged. Such prohibited areas shall be of reasonable extent and location so as not to interfere unnecessarily with air navigation. Descriptions of such prohibited areas in the territory of a contracting State, as well as any subsequent alterations therein, shall be communicated as soon as possible to the other contracting States and to the International Civil Aviation Organization.<br />
<br />
(b) Each contracting State reserves also the right, in exceptional circumstances or during a period of emergency, or in the interest of public safety, and with immediate effect, temporarily to restrict or prohibit flying over the whole or any part of its territory, on condition that such restriction or prohibition shall be applicable without distinction of nationality to aircraft of all other States.<br />
<br />
(c) Each contracting State, under such regulations as it may prescribe, may require any aircraft entering the areas contemplated in subparagraphs (a) or (b) above to effect a landing as soon as practicable thereafter at some designated airport within its territory. <br />
<br />
Article 10<br />
Landing at customs airport<br />
<br />
Except in a case where, under the terms of this Convention or a special authorization, aircraft are permitted to cross the territory of a contracting State without landing, every aircraft which enters the territory of a contracting State shall, if the regulations of that State so require, land at an airport designated by that State for the purpose of customs and other examination. On departure from the territory of a contracting State, such aircraft shall depart from a similarly designated customs airport. Particulars of all designated customs airports shall be published by the State and transmitted to the International Civil Aviation Organization established under Part II of this Convention for communication to all other contracting States. <br />
<br />
Article 11<br />
Applicability of air regulations<br />
<br />
Subject to the provisions of this Convention, the laws and regulations of a contracting State relating to the admission to or departure from its territory of aircraft engaged in international air navigation, or to the operation and navigation of such aircraft while within its territory, shall be applied to the aircraft of all contracting States without distinction as to nationality, and shall be complied with by such aircraft upon entering or departing from or while within the territory of that State. <br />
<br />
Article 12<br />
Rules of the air<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes to adopt measures to insure that every aircraft flying over or maneuvering within its territory and that every aircraft carrying its nationality mark, wherever such aircraft may be, shall comply with the rules and regulations relating to the flight and maneuver of aircraft there in force. Each contracting State undertakes to keep its own regulations in these respects uniform, to the greatest possible extent, with those established from time to time under this Convention. Over the high seas, the rules in force shall be those established under this Convention. Each contracting State undertakes to insure the prosecution of all persons violating the regulations applicable. <br />
<br />
Article 13<br />
Entry and clearance regulations<br />
<br />
The laws and regulations of a contracting State as to the admission to or departure from its territory of passengers, crew or cargo of aircraft, such as regulations relating to entry, clearance, immigration, passports, customs and quarantine shall be complied with by or on behalf of such passengers, crew or cargo upon entrance into or departure from, or while within the territory of that State. <br />
<br />
Article 14<br />
Prevention of spread of disease<br />
<br />
Each contracting State agrees to take effective measures to prevent the spread by means of air navigation of cholera, typhus (epidemic), smallpox, yellow fever, plague, and such other communicable diseases as the contracting States shall from time to time decide to designate, and to that end contracting States will keep in close consultation with the agencies concerned with international regulations relating to sanitary measures applicable to aircraft. Such consultation shall be without prejudice to the application of any existing international convention on this subject to which the contracting States may be parties. <br />
<br />
Article 15<br />
Airport and similar charges<br />
<br />
Every airport in a contracting State which is open to public use by its national aircraft shall likewise, subject to the provisions of Article 68, be open under uniform conditions to the aircraft of all the other contracting States. The like uniform conditions shall apply to the use, by aircraft of every contracting State, of all air navigation facilities, including radio and meteorological services, which may be provided for public use for the safety and expedition of air navigation. <br />
<br />
Any charges that may be imposed or permitted to be imposed by a contracting State for the use of such airports and air navigation facilities by the aircraft of any other contracting State shall not be higher,<br />
<br />
(a) As to aircraft not engaged in scheduled international air services, than those that would be paid by its national aircraft of the same class engaged in similar operations, and<br />
<br />
(b) As to aircraft engaged in scheduled international air services, than those that would be paid by its national aircraft engaged in similar international air services.<br />
<br />
All such charges shall be published and communicated to the International Civil Aviation Organization, provided that, upon representation by an interested contracting State, the charges imposed for the use of airports and other facilities shall be subject to review by the Council, which shall report and make recommendations thereon for the consideration of the State or States concerned. No fees, dues or other charges shall be imposed by any contracting State in respect solely of the right of transit over or entry into or exit from its territory of any aircraft of a contracting State or persons or property thereon. <br />
<br />
Article 16<br />
Search of aircraft<br />
<br />
The appropriate authorities of each of the contracting States shall have the right, without unreasonable delay, to search aircraft of the other contracting States on landing or departure, and to inspect the certificates and other documents prescribed by this Convention. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER III<br />
NATIONALITY OF AIRCRAFT <br />
<br />
Article 17<br />
Nationality of aircraft<br />
<br />
Aircraft have the nationality of the State in which they are registered. <br />
<br />
Article 18<br />
Dual registration<br />
<br />
An aircraft cannot be validly registered in more than one State, but its registration may be changed from one State to another. <br />
<br />
Article 19<br />
National laws governing registration<br />
<br />
The registration or transfer of registration of aircraft in any contracting State shall be made in accordance with its laws and regulations. <br />
<br />
Article 20<br />
Display of marks<br />
<br />
Every aircraft engaged in international air navigation shall bear its appropriate nationality and registration marks. <br />
<br />
Article 21<br />
Report of registrations<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes to supply to any other contracting State or to the International Civil Aviation Organization, on demand, information concerning the registration and ownership of any particular aircraft registered in that State. In addition, each contracting State shall furnish reports to the International Civil Aviation Organization, under such regulations as the latter may prescribe, giving such pertinent data as can be made available concerning the ownership and control of aircraft registered in that State and habitually engaged in international air navigation. The data thus obtained by the International Civil Aviation Organization shall be made available by it on request to the other contracting States. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER IV<br />
MEASURES TO FACILITATE <br />
AIR NAVIGATION <br />
<br />
Article 22<br />
Facilitation of formalities<br />
<br />
Each contracting State agrees to adopt all practicable measures, through the issuance of special regulations or otherwise, to facilitate and expedite navigation by aircraft between the territories of contracting States, and to prevent unnecessary delays to aircraft, crews, passengers and cargo, especially in the administration of the laws relating to immigration, quarantine, customs and clearance.<br />
<br />
Article 23<br />
Customs and immigration procedures<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes, so far as it may find practicable, to establish customs and immigration procedures affecting international air navigation in accordance with the practices which may be established or recommended from time to time, pursuant to this Convention. Nothing in this Convention shall be construed as preventing the establishment of customs-free airports. <br />
<br />
Article 24<br />
Customs duty<br />
<br />
(a) Aircraft on a flight to, from, or across the territory of another contracting State shall be admitted temporarily free of duty, subject to the customs regulations of the State. Fuel, lubricating oils, spare parts, regular equipment and aircraft stores on board an aircraft of a contracting State, on arrival in the territory of another contracting State and retained on board on leaving the territory of that State shall be exempt from customs duty, inspection fees or similar national or local duties and charges. This exemption shall not apply to any quantities or articles unloaded, except in accordance with the customs regulations of the State, which may require that they shall be kept under customs supervision.<br />
<br />
(b) Spare parts and equipment imported into the territory of a contracting State for incorporation in or use on an aircraft of another contracting State engaged in international air navigation shall be admitted free of customs duty, subject to compliance with the regulations of the State concerned, which may provide that the articles shall be kept under customs supervision and control. <br />
<br />
Article 25<br />
Aircraft in distress<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes to provide such measures of assistance to aircraft in distress in its territory as it may find practicable, and to permit, subject to control by its own authorities, the owners of the aircraft or authorities of the State in which the aircraft is registered to provide such measures of assistance as may be necessitated by the circumstances. Each contracting State, when undertaking search for missing aircraft, will collaborate in coordinated measures which may be recommended from time to time pursuant to this Convention. <br />
<br />
Article 26<br />
Investigation of accidents<br />
<br />
In the event of an accident to an aircraft of a contracting State occurring in the territory of another contracting State, and involving death or serious injury, or indicating serious technical defect in the aircraft or air navigation facilities, the State in which the accident occurs will institute an inquiry into the circumstances of the accident, in accordance, so far as its laws permit, with the procedure which may be recommended by the International Civil Aviation Organization. The State in which the aircraft is registered shall be given the opportunity to appoint observers to be present at the inquiry and the State holding the inquiry shall communicate the report and findings in the matter to that State. <br />
<br />
<br />
Article 27<br />
Exemption from seizure on patent claims<br />
<br />
(a) While engaged in international air navigation, any authorized entry of aircraft of a contracting State into the territory of another contracting State or authorized transit across the territory of such State with or without landings shall not entail any seizure or detention of the aircraft or any claim against the owner or operator thereof or any other interference therewith by or on behalf of such State or any person therein, on the ground that the construction, mechanism, parts, accessories or operation of the aircraft is an infringement of any patent, design, or model duly granted or registered in the State whose territory is entered by the aircraft, it being agreed that no deposit of security in connection with the foregoing exemption from seizure or detention of the aircraft shall in any case be required in the State entered by such aircraft. <br />
<br />
(b) The provisions of paragraph (a) of this Article shall also be applicable to the storage of spare parts and spare equipment for the aircraft and the right to use and install the same in the repair of an aircraft of a contracting State in the territory of any other contracting State, provided that any patented part or equipment so stored shall not be sold or distributed internally in or exported commercially from the contracting State entered by the aircraft. <br />
<br />
(c) The benefits of this Article shall apply only to such States, parties to this Convention, as either (1) are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property and to any amendments thereof; or (2) have enacted patent laws which recognize and give adequate protection to inventions made by the nationals of the other States parties to this Convention. <br />
<br />
Article 28<br />
Air navigation facilities and standard systems<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes, so far as it may find practicable, to:<br />
<br />
(a) Provide, in its territory, airports, radio services, meteorological services and other air navigation facilities to facilitate international air navigation, in accordance with the standards and practices recommended or established from time to time, pursuant to this Convention;<br />
<br />
(b) Adopt and put into operation the appropriate standard systems of communications procedure, codes, markings, signals, lighting and other operational practices and rules which may be recommended or established from time to time, pursuant to this Convention;<br />
<br />
(c) Collaborate in international measures to secure the publication of aeronautical maps and charts in accordance with standards which may be recommended or established from time to time, pursuant to this Convention. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER V<br />
CONDITIONS TO BE FULFILLED<br />
WITH RESPECT TO AIRCRAFT <br />
<br />
Article 29<br />
Documents carried in aircraft<br />
<br />
Every aircraft of a contracting State, engaged in international navigation, shall carry the following documents in conformity with the conditions prescribed in this Convention:<br />
<br />
(a) Its certificate of registration;<br />
<br />
(b) Its certificate of airworthiness;<br />
<br />
(c) The appropriate licenses for each member of the crew;<br />
<br />
(d) Its journey log book;<br />
<br />
(e) If it is equipped with radio apparatus, the aircraft radio station license;<br />
<br />
(f) If it carries passengers, a list of their names and places of embarkation and destination;<br />
<br />
(g) If it carries cargo, a manifest and detailed declarations of the cargo.<br />
<br />
<br />
Article 30<br />
Aircraft radio equipment<br />
<br />
(a) Aircraft of each contracting State may, in or over the territory of other contracting States, carry radio transmitting apparatus only if a license to install and operate such apparatus has been issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in which the aircraft is registered. The use of radio transmitting apparatus in the territory of the contracting State whose territory is flown over shall be in accordance with the regulations prescribed by that State.<br />
<br />
(b) Radio transmitting apparatus may be used only by members of the flight crew who are provided with a special license for the purpose, issued by the appropriate authorities of the State in which the aircraft is registered. <br />
<br />
Article 31<br />
Certificates of airworthiness<br />
<br />
Every aircraft engaged in international navigation shall be provided with a certificate of airworthiness issued or rendered valid by the State in which it is registered. <br />
<br />
Article 32<br />
Licenses of personnel<br />
<br />
(a) The pilot of every aircraft and the other members of the operating crew of every aircraft engaged in international navigation shall be provided with certificates of competency and licenses issued or rendered valid by the State in which the aircraft is registered.<br />
<br />
(b) Each contracting State reserves the right to refuse to recognize, for the purpose of flight above its own territory, certificates of competency and licenses granted to any of its nationals by another contracting State. <br />
<br />
Article 33<br />
Recognition of certificates and licenses<br />
<br />
Certificates of airworthiness and certificates of competency and licenses issued or rendered valid by the contracting State in which the aircraft is registered, shall be recognized as valid by the other contracting States, provided that the requirements under which such certificates or licenses were issued or rendered valid are equal to or above the minimum standards which may be established from time to time pursuant to this Convention. <br />
<br />
Article 34<br />
Journey log books<br />
<br />
There shall be maintained in respect of every aircraft engaged in international navigation a journey log book in which shall be entered particulars of the aircraft, its crew and of each journey, in such form as may be prescribed from time to time pursuant to this Convention. <br />
<br />
Article 35<br />
Cargo restrictions<br />
<br />
(a) No munitions of war or implements of war may be carried in or above the territory of a State in aircraft engaged in international navigation, except by permission of such State. Each State shall determine by regulations what constitutes munitions of war or implements of war for the purposes of this Article, giving due consideration, for the purposes of uniformity, to such recommendations as the International Civil Aviation Organization may from time to time make.<br />
<br />
(b) Each contracting State reserves the right, for reasons of public order and safety, to regulate or prohibit the carriage in or above its territory of articles other than those enumerated in paragraph (a): provided that no distinction is made in this respect between its national aircraft engaged in international navigation and the aircraft of the other States so engaged; and provided further that no restriction shall be imposed which may interfere with the carriage and use on aircraft of apparatus necessary for the operation or navigation of the aircraft or the safety of the personnel or passengers.<br />
<br />
<br />
Article 36<br />
Photographic apparatus<br />
<br />
Each contracting State may prohibit or regulate the use of photographic apparatus in aircraft over its territory. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER VI<br />
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND RECOMMENDED PRACTICES <br />
<br />
Article 37<br />
Adoption of international standards and procedures<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes to collaborate in securing the highest practicable degree of uniformity in regulations, standards, procedures, and organization in relation to aircraft, personnel, airways and auxiliary services in all matters in which such uniformity will facilitate and improve air navigation.<br />
<br />
To this end the International Civil Aviation Organization shall adopt and amend from time to time, as may be necessary, international standards and recommended practices and procedures dealing with:<br />
<br />
(a) Communications systems and air navigation aids, including ground marking;<br />
<br />
(b) Characteristics of airports and landing areas;<br />
<br />
(c) Rules of the air and air traffic control practices;<br />
<br />
(d) Licensing of operating and mechanical personnel;<br />
<br />
(e) Airworthiness of aircraft;<br />
<br />
(f) Registration and identification of aircraft;<br />
<br />
(g) Collection and exchange of meteorological information;<br />
<br />
(h) Log books;<br />
<br />
(i) Aeronautical maps and charts;<br />
<br />
(j) Customs and immigration procedures;<br />
<br />
(k) Aircraft in distress and investigation of accidents;<br />
<br />
and such other matters concerned with the safety, regularity, and efficiency of air navigation as may from time to time appear appropriate.<br />
<br />
<br />
Article 38<br />
Departures from international standards and procedures<br />
<br />
Any State which finds it impracticable to comply in all respects with any such international standard or procedure, or to bring its own regulations or practices into full accord with any international standard or procedure after amendment of the latter, or which deems it necessary to adopt regulations or practices differing in any particular respect from those established by an international standard, shall give immediate notification to the International Civil Aviation Organization of the differences between its own practice and that established by the international standard. In the case of amendments to international standards, any State which does not make the appropriate amendments to its own regulations or practices shall give notice to the Council within sixty days of the adoption of the amendment to the international standard, or indicate the action which it proposes to take. In any such case, the Council shall make immediate notification to all other states of the difference which exists between one or more features of an international standard and the corresponding national practice of that State. <br />
<br />
Article 39<br />
Endorsement of certificates and licenses<br />
<br />
(a) Any aircraft or part thereof with respect to which there exists an international standard of airworthiness or performance, and which failed in any respect to satisfy that standard at the time of its certification, shall have endorsed on or attached to its airworthiness certificate a complete enumeration of the details in respect of which it so failed.<br />
<br />
(b) Any person holding a license who does not satisfy in full the conditions laid down in the international standard relating to the class of license or certificate which he holds shall have endorsed on or attached to his license a complete enumeration of the particulars in which he does not satisfy such conditions. <br />
<br />
Article 40<br />
Validity of endorsed certificates and licenses<br />
<br />
No aircraft or personnel having certificates or licenses so endorsed shall participate in international navigation, except with the permission of the State or States whose territory is entered. The registration or use of any such aircraft, or of any certificated aircraft part, in any State other than that in which it was originally certificated shall be at the discretion of the State into which the aircraft or part is imported. <br />
<br />
Article 41<br />
Recognition of existing standards of airworthiness<br />
<br />
The provisions of this Chapter shall not apply to aircraft and aircraft equipment of types of which the prototype is submitted to the appropriate national authorities for certification prior to a date three years after the date of adoption of an international standard of airworthiness for such equipment. <br />
<br />
Article 42<br />
Recognition of existing standards of competency of personnel<br />
<br />
The provisions of this Chapter shall not apply to personnel whose licenses are originally issued prior to a date one year after initial adoption of an international standard of qualification for such personnel; but they shall in any case apply to all personnel whose licenses remain valid five years after the date of adoption of such standard. <br />
<br />
PART II<br />
THE INTERNATIONAL CIVIL<br />
AVIATION ORGANIZATION <br />
<br />
CHAPTER VII<br />
THE ORGANIZATION <br />
<br />
Article 43 <br />
Name and composition<br />
<br />
An organization to be named the International Civil Aviation Organization is formed by the Convention. It is made up of an Assembly, a Council, and such other bodies as may be necessary.<br />
<br />
<br />
Article 44<br />
Objectives<br />
<br />
The aims and objectives of the Organization are to develop the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport so as to:<br />
<br />
(a) Insure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the world;<br />
<br />
(b) Encourage the arts of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes;<br />
<br />
(c) Encourage the development of airways, airports, and air navigation facilities for international civil aviation;<br />
<br />
(d) Meet the needs of the peoples of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport;<br />
<br />
(e) Prevent economic waste caused by unreasonable competition;<br />
<br />
(f) Insure that the rights of contracting States are fully respected and that every contracting State has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines;<br />
<br />
(g) Avoid discrimination between contracting States;<br />
<br />
(h) Promote safety of flight in international air navigation;<br />
<br />
(i) Promote generally the development of all aspects of international civil aeronautics. <br />
<br />
Article 45<br />
Permanent seat<br />
<br />
The permanent seat of the Organization shall be at such place as shall be determined at the final meeting of the Interim Assembly of the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization set up by the Interim Agreement on International Civil Aviation signed at Chicago on December 7, 1944. The seat may be temporarily transferred elsewhere by decision of the Council. <br />
<br />
[The permanent seat of the Organization shall be at such place as shall be determined at the final meeting of the Interim Assembly of the Provisional International Civil Aviation Organization set up by the Interim Agreement on International Civil Aviation signed at Chicago on December 7, 1944. The seat may be temporarily transferred elsewhere by decision of the Council, and otherwise than temporarily by decision of the Assembly, such decision to be taken by the number of votes specified by the Assembly. The number of votes so specified will not be less than three-fifths of the total number of contracting States.]4 <br />
<br />
Article 46<br />
First meeting of Assembly<br />
<br />
The first meeting of the Assembly shall be summoned by the Interim Council of the above-mentioned Provisional Organization as soon as the Convention has come into force, to meet at a time and place to be decided by the Interim Council. <br />
<br />
Article 47<br />
Legal capacity<br />
<br />
The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each contracting State such legal capacity as may be necessary for the performance of its functions. Full juridical personality shall be granted wherever compatible with the constitution and laws of the State concerned. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER VIII<br />
THE ASSEMBLY <br />
<br />
Article 48<br />
Meetings of Assembly and voting<br />
<br />
(a) The Assembly shall meet annually and shall be convened by the Council at a suitable time and place. Extraordinary meetings of the Assembly may be held at any time upon the call of the Council or at the request of any ten contracting States addressed to the Secretary General. <br />
<br />
[(a) The Assembly shall meet not less than once in three years and shall be convened by the Council at a suitable time and place. Extraordinary meetings of the Assembly may be held at any time upon the call of the Council or at the request of any ten contracting States addressed to the Secretary General.]5 <br />
<br />
[(a) The Assembly shall meet not less than once in three years and shall be convened by the Council at a suitable time and place. Extraordinary meeting of the Assembly may be held at any time upon the call of the Council or at the request of not less than one-fifth of the total number of contracting States addressed to the Secretary General.]6 <br />
<br />
(b) All contracting States shall have an equal right to be represented at the meetings of the Assembly and each contracting State shall be entitled to one vote. Delegates representing contracting States may be assisted by technical advisers who may participate in the meetings but shall have no vote.<br />
<br />
(c) A majority of the contracting States is required to constitute a quorum for the meetings of the Assembly. Unless otherwise provided in this Convention, decisions of the Assembly shall be taken by a majority of the votes cast.<br />
<br />
<br />
Article 49<br />
Powers and duties of Assembly<br />
<br />
The powers and duties of the Assembly shall be to:<br />
<br />
(a) Elect at each meeting its President and other officers;<br />
<br />
(b) Elect the contracting State to be represented on the Council, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter IX;<br />
<br />
(c) Examine and take appropriate action on the reports of the Council and decide on any matter referred to it by the Council;<br />
<br />
(d) Determine its own rules of procedure and establish such subsidiary commissions as it may consider to be necessary or desirable;<br />
<br />
(e) Vote an annual budget and determine the financial arrangements of the Organization, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII; <br />
<br />
[(e) Vote annual budgets and determine the financial arrangements of the Organization, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII;]7 <br />
<br />
(f) Review expenditures and approve the accounts of the Organization;<br />
<br />
(g) Refer, at its discretion, to the Council, to subsidiary commissions, or to any other body any matter within its sphere of action;<br />
<br />
(h) Delegate to the Council the powers and authority necessary or desirable for the discharge of the duties of the Organization and revoke or modify the delegations of authority at any time;<br />
<br />
(i) Carry out the appropriate provisions of Chapter XIII;<br />
<br />
(j) Consider proposals for the modification or amendment of the provisions of this Convention and, if it approves of the proposals, recommend them to the contracting States in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XXI; <br />
<br />
(k) Deal with any matter within the sphere of action of the Organization not specifically assigned to the Council. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER IX<br />
THE COUNCIL <br />
<br />
Article 50<br />
Composition and election of Council<br />
<br />
(a) The Council shall be a permanent body responsible to the Assembly. It shall be composed of twenty-one contracting States elected by the Assembly. An election shall be held at the first meeting of the Assembly and thereafter every three years, and the members of the Council so elected shall hold office until the next following election. <br />
<br />
[(a) The Council shall be a permanent body responsible to the Assembly. It shall be composed of twenty-seven contracting States elected by the Assembly. An election shall be held at the first meeting of the Assembly and thereafter every three years, and the members of the Council so elected shall hold office until the next following election.]8 <br />
<br />
[(a) The Council shall be a permanent body responsible to the Assembly. It shall be composed of thirty contracting States elected by the Assembly. An election shall be held at the first meeting of the Assembly and thereafter every three years, and the members of the Council so elected shall hold office until the next following election.]9 <br />
<br />
[(a) The Council shall be a permanent body responsible to the Assembly. It shall be composed of thirty-three contracting States elected by the Assembly. An election shall be held at the first meeting of the Assembly and thereafter every three years, and the members of the Council so elected shall hold office until the next following election.]10 <br />
<br />
[(a) The Council shall be a permanent body responsible to the Assembly. It shall be composed of thirty-six contracting States elected by the Assembly. An election shall be held at the first meeting of the Assembly and thereafter every three years, and the members of the Council so elected shall hold office until the next following election.]11 <br />
<br />
(b) In electing the members of the Council, the Assembly shall give adequate representation to (1) the States of chief importance in air transport; (2) the States not otherwise included which make the largest contribution to the provision of facilities for international civil air navigation; and (3) the States not otherwise included whose designation will insure that all the major geographic areas of the world are represented on the Council. Any vacancy on the Council shall be filled by the Assembly as soon as possible; any contracting State so elected to the Council shall hold office for the unexpired portion of its predecessor's term of office. <br />
<br />
(c) No representative of a contracting State on the Council shall be actively associated with the operation of an international air service or financially interested in such a service. <br />
<br />
Article 51<br />
President of Council<br />
<br />
The Council shall elect its President for a term of three years. He may be reelected. He shall have no vote. The Council shall elect from among its members one or more Vice Presidents who shall retain their right to vote when serving as acting President. The President need not be selected from among the representatives of the members of the Council but, if a representative is elected, his seat shall be deemed vacant and it shall be filled by the State which he represented. The duties of the President shall be to: <br />
<br />
(a) Convene meetings of the Council, the Air Transport Committee, and the Air Navigation Commission;<br />
<br />
(b) Serve as representative of the Council; and <br />
<br />
(c) Carry out on behalf of the Council the functions which the Council assigns to him. <br />
<br />
Article 52<br />
Voting in Council<br />
<br />
Decisions by the Council shall require approval by a majority of its members. The Council may delegate authority with respect to any particular matter to a committee of its members. Decisions of any committee of the Council may be appealed to the Council by any interested contracting State. <br />
<br />
Article 53<br />
Participation without a vote<br />
<br />
Any contracting State may participate, without a vote, in the consideration by the Council and by its committees and commissions of any question which especially affects its interests. No member of the Council shall vote in the consideration by the Council of a dispute to which it is a party. <br />
<br />
Article 54<br />
Mandatory functions of Council<br />
<br />
The Council shall:<br />
<br />
(a) Submit annual reports to the Assembly;<br />
<br />
(b) Carry out the directions of the Assembly and discharge the duties and obligations which are laid on it by this Convention;<br />
<br />
(c) Determine its organization and rules of procedure;<br />
<br />
(d) Appoint and define the duties of an Air Transport Committee, which shall be chosen from among the representatives of the members of the Council, and which shall be responsible to it;<br />
<br />
(e) Establish an Air Navigation Commission, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter X;<br />
<br />
(f) Administer the finances of the Organization in accordance with the provisions of Chapters XII and XV;<br />
<br />
(g) Determine the emoluments of the President of the Council;<br />
<br />
(h) Appoint a chief executive officer who shall be called the Secretary General, and make provision for the appointment of such other personnel as may be necessary, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XI;<br />
<br />
(i) Request, collect, examine and publish information relating to the advancement of air navigation and the operation of international air services, including information about the costs of operation and particulars of subsidies paid to airlines from public funds;<br />
<br />
(j) Report to contracting States any infraction of this Convention, as well as any failure to carry out recommendations or determinations of the Council;<br />
<br />
(k) Report to the Assembly any infraction of this Convention where a contracting State has failed to take appropriate action within a reasonable time after notice of the infraction;<br />
<br />
(l) Adopt, in accordance with the provisions of Chapter VI of this Convention, international standards and recommended practices; for convenience, designate them as Annexes to this Convention; and notify all contracting States of the action taken;<br />
<br />
(m) Consider recommendations of the Air Navigation Commission for amendment of the Annexes and take action in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XX;<br />
<br />
(n) Consider any matter relating to the Convention which any contracting State refers to it. <br />
<br />
Article 55<br />
Permissive functions of Council<br />
<br />
The Council may:<br />
<br />
(a) Where appropriate and as experience may show to be desirable, create subordinate air transport commissions on a regional or other basis and define groups of states or airlines with or through which it may deal to facilitate the carrying out of the aims of this Convention;<br />
<br />
(b) Delegate to the Air Navigation Commission duties additional to those set forth in the Convention and revoke or modify such delegations of authority at any time;<br />
<br />
(c) Conduct research into all aspects of air transport and air navigation which are of international importance, communicate the results of its research to the contracting States, and facilitate the exchange of information between contracting States on air transport and air navigation matters;<br />
<br />
(d) Study any matters affecting the organization and operation of international air transport, including the international ownership and operation of international air services on trunk routes, and submit to the Assembly plans in relation thereto;<br />
<br />
(e) Investigate, at the request of any contracting State, any situation which may appear to present avoidable obstacles to the development of international air navigation; and, after such investigation, issue such reports as may appear to it desirable. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER X<br />
THE AIR NAVIGATION COMMISSION <br />
<br />
Article 56<br />
Nomination and appointment of Commission<br />
<br />
The Air Navigation Commission shall be composed of twelve members appointed by the Council from among persons nominated by contracting States. These persons shall have suitable qualifications and experience in the science and practice of aeronautics. The Council shall request all contracting States to submit nominations. The President of the Air Navigation Commission shall be appointed by the Council. <br />
<br />
[The Air Navigation Commission shall be composed of fifteen members appointed by the Council from among persons nominated by contracting States. These persons shall have suitable qualifications and experience in the science and practice of aeronautics. The Council shall request all contracting States to submit nominations. The President of the Air Navigation Commission shall be appointed by the Council.]12 <br />
<br />
[The Air Navigation Commission shall be composed of nineteen members appointed by the Council from among persons nominated by contracting States. These persons shall have suitable qualifications and experience in the science and practice of aeronautics. The Council shall request all contracting States to submit nominations. The President of the Air Navigation Commission shall be appointed by the Council.]13 <br />
<br />
Article 57<br />
Duties of Commission<br />
<br />
The Air Navigation Commission shall:<br />
<br />
(a) Consider, and recommend to the Council for adoption, modifications of the Annexes to this Convention;<br />
<br />
(b) Establish technical subcommissions on which any contracting State may be represented, if it so desires;<br />
<br />
(c) Advise the Council concerning the collection and communication to the contracting States of all information which it considers necessary and useful for the advancement of air navigation. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XI<br />
PERSONNEL <br />
<br />
Article 58<br />
Appointment of personnel<br />
<br />
Subject to any rules laid down by the Assembly and to the provisions of this Convention, the Council shall determine the method of appointment and of termination of appointment, the training, and the salaries, allowances, and conditions of service of the Secretary General and other personnel of the Organization, and may employ or make use of the services of nationals of any contracting State. <br />
<br />
Article 59<br />
International character of personnel<br />
<br />
The President of the Council, the Secretary General, and other personnel shall not seek or receive instructions in regard to the discharge of their responsibilities from any authority external to the Organization. Each contracting State undertakes fully to respect the international character of the responsibilities of the personnel and not to seek to influence any of its nationals in the discharge of their responsibilities. <br />
<br />
Article 60<br />
Immunities and privileges of personnel<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes, so far as possible under its constitutional procedure, to accord to the President of the Council, the Secretary General, and the other personnel of the Organization, the immunities and privileges which are accorded to corresponding personnel of other public international organizations. If a general international agreement on the immunities and privileges of international civil servants is arrived at, the immunities and privileges accorded to the President, the Secretary General, and the other personnel of the Organization shall be the immunities and privileges accorded under that general international agreement. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XII<br />
FINANCE <br />
<br />
Article 61<br />
Budget and apportionment of expenses<br />
<br />
The Council shall submit to the Assembly an annual budget, annual statements of accounts and estimates of all receipts and expenditures. The Assembly shall vote the budget with whatever modification it sees fit to prescribe, and, with the exception of assessments under Chapter XV to States consenting thereto, shall apportion the expenses of the Organization among the contracting States on the basis which it shall from time to time determine. <br />
<br />
[The Council shall submit to the Assembly annual budgets, annual statements of accounts and estimates of all receipts and expenditures. the Assembly shall vote the budgets with whatever modification it sees fit to prescribe and with the exception of assessments under Chapter XV to States consenting thereto, shall apportion the expenses of the Organization among the contracting States on the basis which it shall from time to time determine.]14 <br />
<br />
Article 62<br />
Suspension of voting power<br />
<br />
The Assembly may suspend the voting power in the Assembly and in the Council of any contracting State that fails to discharge within a reasonable period its financial obligations to the Organization. <br />
<br />
Article 63<br />
Expenses of delegations and other representatives<br />
<br />
Each contracting State shall bear the expenses of its own delegation to the Assembly and the remuneration, travel, and other expenses of any person whom it appoints to serve on the Council, and of its nominees or representatives on any subsidiary committees or commissions of the Organization. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XIII<br />
OTHER INTERNATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS <br />
<br />
Article 64<br />
Security arrangements<br />
<br />
The Organization may, with respect to air matters within its competence directly affecting world security, by vote of the Assembly enter into appropriate arrangements with any general organization set up by the nations of the world to preserve peace. <br />
<br />
Article 65<br />
Arrangements with other international bodies<br />
<br />
The Council, on behalf of the Organization, may enter into agreements with other international bodies for the maintenance of common services and for common arrangements concerning personnel and, with the approval of the Assembly, may enter into such other arrangements as may facilitate the work of the Organization. <br />
<br />
Article 66<br />
Functions relating to other agreements<br />
<br />
(a) The Organization shall also carry out the functions placed upon it by the International Air Services Transit Agreement and by the International Air Transport Agreement drawn up at Chicago on December 7, 1944, in accordance with the terms and conditions therein set forth.<br />
<br />
(b) Members of the Assembly and the Council who have not accepted the International Air Services Transit Agreement or the International Air Transport Agreement drawn up at Chicago on December 7, 1944 shall not have the right to vote on any questions referred to the Assembly or Council under the provisions of the relevant Agreement.<br />
<br />
<br />
PART III<br />
INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XIV<br />
INFORMATION AND REPORTS <br />
<br />
Article 67<br />
File reports with Council<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes that its international airlines shall, in accordance with requirements laid down by the Council, file with the Council traffic reports, cost statistics and financial statements showing among other things all receipts and the sources thereof. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XV<br />
AIRPORTS AND OTHER AIR NAVIGATION FACILITIES <br />
<br />
Article 68<br />
Designation of routes and airports<br />
<br />
Each contracting State may, subject to the provisions of this Convention, designate the route to be followed within its territory by any international air service and the airports which any such service may use. <br />
<br />
Article 69<br />
Improvement of air navigation facilities<br />
<br />
If the Council is of the opinion that the airports or other air navigation facilities, including radio and meteorological services, of a contracting State are not reasonably adequate for the safe, regular, efficient, and economical operation of international air services, present or contemplated, the Council shall consult with the State directly concerned, and other States affected, with a view to finding means by which the situation may be remedied, and may make recommendations for that purpose. No contracting State shall be guilty of an infraction of this Convention if it fails to carry out these recommendations. <br />
<br />
Article 70<br />
Financing of air navigation facilities<br />
<br />
A contracting State, in the circumstances arising under the provisions of Article 69, may conclude an arrangement with the Council for giving effect to such recommendations. The State may elect to bear all of the costs involved in any such arrangement. If the State does not so elect, the Council may agree, at the request of the State, to provide for all or a portion of the costs. <br />
<br />
Article 71<br />
Provision and maintenance of facilities by Council<br />
<br />
If a contracting State so requests, the Council may agree to provide, man, maintain, and administer any or all of the airports and other air navigation facilities, including radio and meteorological services, required in its territory for the safe, regular, efficient and economical operation of the international air services of the other contracting States, and may specify just and reasonable charges for the use of the facilities provided. <br />
<br />
Article 72<br />
Acquisition or use of land<br />
<br />
Where land is needed for facilities financed in whole or in part by the Council at the request of a contracting State, that State shall either provide the land itself, retaining title if it wishes, or facilitate the use of the land by the Council on just and reasonable terms and in accordance with the laws of the State concerned. <br />
<br />
Article 73<br />
Expenditure and assessment of funds<br />
<br />
Within the limit of the funds which may be made available to it by the Assembly under Chapter XII, the Council may make current expenditures for the purposes of this Chapter from the general funds of the Organization. The Council shall assess the capital funds required for the purposes of this Chapter in previously agreed proportions over a reasonable period of time to the contracting States consenting thereto whose airlines use the facilities. The Council may also assess to States that consent any working funds that are required. <br />
<br />
Article 74<br />
Technical assistance and utilization of revenues<br />
<br />
When the Council, at the request of a contracting State, advances funds or provides airports or other facilities in whole or in part, the arrangement may provide, with the consent of that State, for technical assistance in the supervision and operation of the airports and other facilities, and for the payment, from the revenues derived from the operation of the airports and other facilities, of the operating expenses of the airports and the other facilities, and of interest and amortization charges. <br />
<br />
Article 75<br />
Taking over of facilities from Council<br />
<br />
A contracting State may at any time discharge any obligation into which it has entered under Article 70, and take over airports and other facilities which the Council has provided in its territory pursuant to the provisions of Articles 71 and 72, by paying to the Council an amount which in the opinion of the Council is reasonable in the circumstances. If the State considers that the amount fixed by the Council is unreasonable it may appeal to the Assembly against the decision of the Council and the Assembly may confirm or amend the decision of the Council. <br />
<br />
Article 76<br />
Return of funds<br />
<br />
Funds obtained by the Council through reimbursement under Article 75 and from receipts of interest and amortization payments under Article 74 shall, in the case of advances originally financed by States under Article 73, be returned to the States which were originally assessed in the proportion of their assessments, as determined by the Council. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XVI<br />
JOINT OPERATING ORGANIZATIONS<br />
AND POOLED SERVICES <br />
<br />
Article 77<br />
Joint operating organizations permitted<br />
<br />
Nothing in this Convention shall prevent two or more contracting States from constituting joint air transport operating organizations or international operating agencies and from pooling their air services on any routes or in any regions, but such organizations or agencies and such pooled services shall be subject to all the provisions of this Convention, including those relating to the registration of agreements with the Council. The Council shall determine in what manner the provisions of this Convention relating to nationality of aircraft shall apply to aircraft operated by international operating agencies. <br />
<br />
Article 78<br />
Function of Council<br />
<br />
The Council may suggest to contracting States concerned that they form joint organizations to operate air services on any routes or in any regions. <br />
<br />
Article 79<br />
Participation in operating organizations<br />
<br />
A State may participate in joint operating organizations or in pooling arrangements, either through its government or through an airline company or companies designated by its government. The companies may, at the sole discretion of the State concerned, be state-owned or partly state-owned or privately owned. <br />
<br />
PART IV<br />
FINAL PROVISIONS <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XVII<br />
OTHER AERONAUTICAL<br />
AGREEMENTS AND ARRANGEMENTS <br />
<br />
Article 80<br />
Paris and Habana Conventions<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes, immediately upon the coming into force of this Convention, to give notice of denunciation of the Convention relating to the Regulation of Aerial Navigation signed at Paris on October 13, 1919 or the Convention on Commercial Aviation signed at Habana on February 20, 1928, if it is a party to either. As between contracting States, this Convention supersedes the Conventions of Paris and Habana previously referred to. <br />
<br />
Article 81<br />
Registration of existing agreements<br />
<br />
All aeronautical agreements which are in existence on the coming into force of this Convention, and which are between a contracting State and any other State or between an airline of a contracting State and any other State or the airline of any other State, shall be forthwith registered with the Council. <br />
<br />
Article 82<br />
Abrogation of inconsistent arrangements<br />
<br />
The contracting States accept this Convention as abrogating all obligations and understandings between them which are inconsistent with its terms, and undertake not to enter into any such obligations and understandings. A contracting State which, before becoming a member of the Organization has undertaken any obligations toward a non-contracting State or a national of a contracting State or of a non-contracting State inconsistent with the terms of this Convention, shall take immediate steps to procure its release from the obligations. If an airline of any contracting State has entered into any such inconsistent obligations, the State of which it is a national shall use its best efforts to secure their termination forthwith and shall in any event cause them to be terminated as soon as such action can lawfully be taken after the coming into force of this Convention. <br />
<br />
Article 8315 <br />
Registration of new arrangements<br />
<br />
Subject to the provisions of the preceding Article, any contracting State may make arrangements not inconsistent with the provisions of this Convention. Any such arrangement shall be forthwith registered with the Council, which shall make it public as soon as possible. <br />
<br />
Article 83 bis<br />
Transfer of certain functions and duties<br />
<br />
(a) Notwithstanding the provisions of Articles 12, 30, 31 and 32(a), when an aircraft registered in a contracting State is operated pursuant to an agreement for the lease, charter or interchange of the aircraft or any similar arrangement by an operator who has his principal place of business or, if he has no such place of business, his permanent residence in another contracting State, the State of registry may, by agreement with such other State, transfer to it all or part of its functions and duties as State of registry in respect of that aircraft under Articles 12, 30, 31 and 32(a). The State of registry shall be relieved of responsibility in respect of the functions and duties transferred.<br />
<br />
(b) The transfer shall not have effect in respect of other contracting States before either the agreement between States in which it is embodied has been registered with the Council and made public pursuant to Article 83 or the existence and scope of the agreement have been directly communicated to the authorities of the other contracting State or States concerned by a State party to the agreement.<br />
<br />
(c) The provisions of paragraphs (a) and (b) above shall also be applicable to cases covered by Article 77. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XVIII<br />
DISPUTES AND DEFAULT <br />
<br />
Article 84<br />
Settlement of disputes<br />
<br />
If any disagreement between two or more contracting States relating to the interpretation or application of this Convention and its Annexes cannot be settled by negotiation, it shall, on the application of any State concerned in the disagreement, be decided by the Council. No member of the Council shall vote in the consideration by the Council of any dispute to which it is a party. Any contracting State may, subject to Article 85, appeal from the decision of the Council to an ad hoc arbitral tribunal agreed upon with the other parties to the dispute or to the Permanent Court of International Justice. Any such appeal shall be notified to the Council within sixty days of receipt of notification of the decision of the Council. <br />
<br />
Article 85<br />
Arbitration procedure<br />
<br />
If any contracting State party to a dispute in which the decision of the Council is under appeal has not accepted the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice and the contracting States parties to the dispute cannot agree on the choice of the arbitral tribunal, each of the contracting States parties to the dispute shall name a single arbitrator who shall name an umpire. If either contracting State party to the dispute fails to name an arbitrator within a period of three months from the date of the appeal, an arbitrator shall be named on behalf of that State by the President of the Council from a list of qualified and available persons maintained by the Council. If, within thirty days, the arbitrators cannot agree on an umpire, the President of the Council shall designate an umpire from the list previously referred to. The arbitrators and the umpire shall then jointly constitute an arbitral tribunal. Any arbitral tribunal established under this or the preceding Article shall settle its own procedure and give its decisions by majority vote, provided that the Council may determine procedural questions in the event of any delay which in the opinion of the Council is excessive. <br />
<br />
Article 86<br />
Appeals<br />
<br />
Unless the Council decides otherwise any decision by the Council on whether an international airline is operating in conformity with the provisions of this Convention shall remain in effect unless reversed on appeal. On any other matter, decisions of the Council shall, if appealed from, be suspended until the appeal is decided. The decisions of the Permanent Court of International Justice and of an arbitral tribunal shall be final and binding. <br />
<br />
Article 87<br />
Penalty for non-conformity of airline<br />
<br />
Each contracting State undertakes not to allow the operation of an airline of a contracting State through the airspace above its territory if the Council has decided that the airline concerned is not conforming to a final decision rendered in accordance with the previous Article. <br />
<br />
Article 88<br />
Penalty for non-conformity by State<br />
<br />
The Assembly shall suspend the voting power in the Assembly and in the Council of any contracting State that is found in default under the provisions of this Chapter. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XIX<br />
WAR <br />
<br />
Article 89<br />
War and emergency conditions<br />
<br />
In case of war, the provisions of this Convention shall not affect the freedom of action of any of the contracting States affected, whether as belligerents or as neutrals. The same principle shall apply in the case of any contracting State which declares a state of national emergency and notifies the fact to the Council. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XX<br />
ANNEXES <br />
<br />
Article 90<br />
Adoption and amendment of Annexes<br />
<br />
(a) The adoption by the Council of the Annexes described in Article 54, subparagraph (l), shall require the vote of two-thirds of the Council at a meeting called for that purpose and shall then be submitted by the Council to each contracting State. Any such Annex or any amendment of an Annex shall become effective within three months after its submission to the contracting States or at the end of such longer period of time as the Council may prescribe, unless in the meantime a majority of the contracting States register their disapproval with the Council. <br />
<br />
(b) The Council shall immediately notify all contracting States of the coming into force of any Annex or amendment thereto. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XXI<br />
RATIFICATIONS, ADHERENCES,<br />
AMENDMENTS, AND DENUNCIATIONS <br />
<br />
Article 91<br />
Ratification of Convention<br />
<br />
(a) This Convention shall be subject to ratification by the signatory States. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, which shall give notice of the date of the deposit to each of the signatory and adhering States.<br />
<br />
(b) As soon as this Convention has been ratified or adhered to by twenty-six States it shall come into force between them on the thirtieth day after deposit of the twenty-sixth instrument. It shall come into force for each State ratifying thereafter on the thirtieth day after the deposit of its instrument of ratification.<br />
<br />
(c) It shall be the duty of the Government of the United States of America to notify the government of each of the signatory and adhering States of the date on which this Convention comes into force. <br />
<br />
Article 92<br />
Adherence to Convention<br />
<br />
(a) This Convention shall be open for adherence by members of the United Nations and States associated with them, and States which remained neutral during the present world conflict.<br />
<br />
(b) Adherence shall be effected by a notification addressed to the Government of the United States of America and shall take effect as from the thirtieth day from the receipt of the notification by the Government of the United States of America, which shall notify all the contracting States. <br />
<br />
Article 93<br />
Admission of other States<br />
<br />
States other than those provided for in Articles 91 and 92 (a) may, subject to approval by any general international organization set up by the nations of the world to preserve peace, be admitted to participation in this Convention by means of a four-fifths vote of the Assembly and on such conditions as the Assembly may prescribe: provided that in each case the assent of any State invaded or attacked during the present war by the State seeking admission shall be necessary. <br />
<br />
Article 93 bis16<br />
<br />
(a) Notwithstanding the provisions of Articles 91, 92 and 93 above:<br />
<br />
(1) A State whose government the General Assembly of the United Nations has recommended be debarred from membership in international agencies established by or brought into relationship with the United Nations shall automatically cease to be a member of the International Civil Aviation Organization;<br />
<br />
(2) A State which has been expelled from membership in the United Nations shall automatically cease to be a member of the International Civil Aviation Organization unless the General Assembly of the United Nations attaches to its act of expulsion a recommendation to the contrary.<br />
<br />
(b) A State which ceases to be a member of the International Civil Aviation Organization as a result of the provisions of paragraph (a) above may, after approval by the General Assembly of the United Nations, be readmitted to the International Civil Aviation Organization upon application and upon approval by a majority of the Council.<br />
<br />
(c) Members of the Organization which are suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership in the United Nations shall, upon the request of the latter, be suspended from the rights and privileges of membership in this Organization. <br />
<br />
Article 94<br />
Amendment of Convention<br />
<br />
(a) Any proposed amendment to this Convention must be approved by a two-thirds vote of the Assembly and shall then come into force in respect of States which have ratified such amendment when ratified by the number of contracting States specified by the Assembly. The number so specified shall not be less than two-thirds of the total number of contracting States.<br />
<br />
(b) If in its opinion the amendment is of such a nature as to justify this course, the Assembly in its resolution recommending adoption may provide that any State which has not ratified within a specified period after the amendment has come into force shall thereupon cease to be a member of the Organization and a party to the Convention. <br />
<br />
Article 95<br />
Denunciation of Convention<br />
<br />
(a) Any contracting State may give notice of denunciation of this Convention three years after its coming into effect by notification addressed to the Government of the United States of America, which shall at once inform each of the contracting States.<br />
<br />
(b) Denunciation shall take effect one year from the date of the receipt of the notification and shall operate only as regards the State effecting the denunciation. <br />
<br />
CHAPTER XXII<br />
DEFINITIONS <br />
<br />
Article 96<br />
For the purpose of this Convention the expression:<br />
<br />
(a) “Air service” means any scheduled air service performed by aircraft for the public transport of passengers, mail or cargo.<br />
<br />
(b) “International air service” means an air service which passes through the air space over the territory of more than one State.<br />
<br />
(c) “Airline” means any air transport enterprise offering or operating an international air service.<br />
<br />
(d) “Stop for non-traffic purposes” means a landing for any purpose other than taking on or discharging passengers, cargo or mail.<br />
<br />
SIGNATURE OF CONVENTION<br />
<br />
In WITNESS WHEREOF, the undersigned plenipotentiaries, having been duly authorized, sign this Convention on behalf of their respective governments on the dates appearing opposite their signatures.<br />
<br />
DONE at Chicago the seventh day of December 1944, in the English language. A text drawn up in the English, French, and Spanish languages, each of which shall be of equal authenticity, shall be opened for signature at Washington, D.C. Both texts shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, and certified copies shall be transmitted by that Government to the govenments of all the States which may sign or adhere to this Convention. <br />
<br />
[DONE at Chicago the seventh day of December 1944 in the English language. The texts of this Convention drawn up in the English, French, Russian and Spanish languages are of equal authenticity. These texts shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, and ceritfied copies shall be transmitted by that Government to the governments of all the States which amy sign or adhere to this Convention. This Convention shall be open for signature at Washington, D.C.]17 <br />
<br />
[DONE at Chicago the seventh day of December 1944 in the English language. The texts of this Convention drawn up in the English, Arabic, French, Russian and Spanish languages are of equal authenticity. These texts shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, and ceritfied copies shall be transmitted by that Government to the governments of all the States which amy sign or adhere to this Convention. This Convention shall be open for signature at Washington, D.C.]18 <br />
<br />
[DONE at Chicago the seventh day of December 1944 in the English language. The texts of this Convention drawn up in the English, Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish languages are of equal authenticity. These texts shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, and ceritfied copies shall be transmitted by that Government to the governments of all the States which amy sign or adhere to this Convention. This Convention shall be open for signature at Washington, D.C.]19Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-24229965466975095402011-05-05T07:19:00.000-07:002011-05-05T07:19:08.121-07:00Aircraft Maintenance ChecksAircraft maintenance checks are periodic checks that have to be done on all aircraft after a certain amount of time or usage. Airlines and other commercial operators of large or turbine-powered aircraft follow a continuous inspection program approved by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States[1], or by other airworthiness authorities such as Transport Canada or the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). Under FAA oversight, each operator prepares a Continuous Airworthiness Maintenance Program (CAMP) under its Operations Specifications or "OpSpecs".[2] The CAMP includes both routine and detailed inspections. Airlines and airworthiness authorities casually refer to the detailed inspections as "checks", commonly one of the following: A check, B check, C check, or D check. A and B checks are lighter checks, while C and D are considered heavier checks.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>A</b> Check<br />
This is performed approximately every 500 - 800 flight hours. It is usually done overnight at an airport gate. The actual occurrence of this check varies by aircraft type, the cycle count (takeoff and landing is considered an aircraft "cycle"), or the number of hours flown since the last check. The occurrence can be delayed by the airline if certain predetermined conditions are met.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>B</b> Check<br />
This is performed approximately every 3-6 months. It is usually done in 1-3 days at an airport hangar. A similar occurrence schedule applies to the B check as to the A check. B checks may be incorporated into successive A checks, ie: A-1 through A-10 complete all the B check items.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>C</b> Check<br />
This is performed approximately every 15–21 months or a specific amount of actual Flight Hours (FH) as defined by the manufacturer. This maintenance check is more extensive than a B Check, as pretty much the whole aircraft is inspected. This check puts the aircraft out of service and until it is completed, the aircraft must not leave the maintenance site. It also requires more space than A and B Checks - usually a hangar at a maintenance base. The time needed to complete such a check is generally 1-2 weeks. The schedule of occurrence has many factors and components as has been described, and thus varies by aircraft category and type.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>D</b> Check<br />
This is - by far - the most comprehensive and demanding check for an airplane. It is also known as a Heavy Maintenance Visit (HMV). This check occurs approximately every 5–6 years. It is a check that, more or less, takes the entire airplane apart for inspection and overhaul. Such a check can generally take from 3 weeks to 2 months, depending on the aircraft and number of technicians involved (it is not uncommon to have as many as 100 technicians working on a Boeing 747 at the same time). It also requires the most space of all maintenance checks, and as such must be performed at a suitable maintenance base.<br />
<br />
Because of the nature and the cost of such a check, most airlines - especially those with a large fleet - have to plan D Checks for their aircraft years in advance. Often, older aircraft being phased out of a particular airline's fleet are stored or scrapped upon reaching their next D Check, due to the high costs involved in it in comparison to the aircraft's value. Many Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO) shops state that it is virtually impossible to perform a D Check profitably at a shop located within the United States. As such, only few of these shops offer D checks.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-81118747916288982662011-05-05T07:13:00.000-07:002011-05-05T07:13:56.581-07:00USEFUL WEBSITES FOR AVIATION STUDENTS AND AIR TRAVEL PROFESSIONALS<b>VISA AND EMBASSY INFORMATIONS</b><br />
www.projectvisa.com<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>INFORMATIONS ON PASSPORT, VISA AND HEALTH ADVICE</b><br />
www.iatatravelcentre.comTangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-30307100527527988442011-05-05T06:56:00.000-07:002011-05-05T06:56:17.273-07:00AVIATION NEWS<b>JET AIRWAYS UPDATE<br />
</b>It was a partial victory for Jet Airways before the Bombay High Court yesterday. Justice D Y Chandrachud came to the conclusion that "Jet Airways is liable to pay a consideration of Rs 1,450 crore and not Rs 2,000 crore" to Sahara Group , for the 2007 takeover deal of Sahara Airline. The court however sought to strike a balance. It held that Sahara had breached its obligation by not disclosing its pre-deal tax liability to Jet and also that Jet had been wrong in deducting the tax amount from its instalments to Sahara.<br />
<br />
The judge imposed a 9% interest on Jet Airways for its remaining pending amount of Rs 402 crore to Sahara and directed payment of Rs 478 crore within two weeks. Jet had paid Rs 900crore up front to Sahara after the deal was made and had to pay the rest in four equal instalments since 2008.<br />
<br />
After the judgment, the Sahara counsel sought a continuation of the undertaking given by Jet in March 2009 to not sell its assets except in the ordinary course of business. He said Sahara will appeal against this order.<br />
<br />
But Jet counsel Janak Dwarkadas opposed the Sahara request saying: "We are in a position to pay Rs 478 crore in two weeks as directed. This demonstrates the company’s financial viability .Thus, there is no need to continue with the undertaking particularly since they (Sahara) have been held to be in default of performing their indemnity obligation." Justice Chandrachud said since the court had concluded that Jet’s liability was Rs 1,450 crore, the 2009 undertaking shall be dissolved after two weeks.<br />
<br />
The2007 takeover bid of Sahara Airline was worth Rs 2,000crore but after renegotiation, a concession was given to Jet that the final price would be accepted as Rs 1,450 crore if paid in installments by March 31, 2011, without deduction and set-offs.<br />
<br />
The problem arose when Jet began deducting Sahara’s tax liability in March 2008 after the income tax department pointed to pending taxes of Rs 107 crore due from Sahara Airline. Sahara argued in HC in 2009, said the deductions were impermissible and amounted to default, thus disentitling Jet to the concessional price of Rs 1,450 crore . Sahara raised the demand for additional Rs 550crore from Jet. Jet had refuted Sahara’s charge and argued that Sahara was legally obliged to reimburse Jet for any undisclosed pre-deal tax liability. Hence the current mess.<br />
<br />
The bottom line is that Jet got its timing all wrong on this deal and the value of Sahara was far higher than it would be today, in fairness though Jet was not able to consult a crystal ball at the time. The deal ultimately may still prove to be worth its weight as the Indian market recovers and grows and slots increase in value.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>LUFTHANSA TO REMAIN IN THE BLACK<br />
</b>Christoph Franz, CEO of Lufthansa has confirmed that the airline expects to be able to remain profitable throughout 2011. At the same time Franz conceded that he was not able to give a clear outlook for the full year due to the uncertain situation in Japan which has thus far cost Lufthansa €16 million in lost revenue in the first quarter while unrest in North Africa has had a far larger impact costing €22 million during the year’s first three months alone.<br />
<br />
Interestingly Lufthansa has confirmed that it has not been able to pass on the cost of the new German eco-aviation tax implemented in January to customers, leading to a cost impact of between €8 to €45 depending on the route.<br />
<br />
Franz confirmed expects fuel prices to rise faster than ticket prices. A worrying comment for the outlook of European airlines which further confirms the problems of overcapacity in the European airline market.<br />
<br />
<br />
<i>Leasing News<br />
<b></b></i>FLY <b>LEASING Q1 RESULTS <br />
</b>In the first quarter of 2011 FLY Leasing operating lease revenue was $47.6 million, and net income was $2.8 million or $0.10 per share. At quarter end, all 60 aircraft were contracted for lease to 34 lessees in 23 countries. During the quarter FLY acquired a new Boeing 737-800 under a sale and leaseback transaction with an airline and purchased a 57% equity interest in a new joint venture that owns four Boeing 767 aircraft on lease to two airlines in North America. The net equity investment in the joint venture is $5.9 million.<br />
<br />
During the quarter FLY repurchased an additional 1.1 million shares at an average price of $11.94 per share. FLY has now repurchased a total of 8.0 million of its shares at an average price of $7.89 per share, representing 24% of its IPO shares. FLY’s 14th consecutive quarterly dividend, representing 19% of Available Cash Flow in the quarter, will be paid on May 20th to shareholders of record on April 29th. Colm Barrington said: “With all our aircraft currently leased and generating rentals, along with $139.8 million of unrestricted cash, we remain well-positioned to grow our portfolio of aircraft.”<br />
<br />
FLY’s net income and basic and diluted earnings per share for the first quarter of 2011 was $2.8 million and $0.10 per share compared to $16.7 million and $0.55 per share for the same period of the preceding year. The decrease in net income is primarily due to a decline in revenue. Total revenue for the first quarter of 2011 was $49.7 million compared to $67.7 million in the same period in the previous year. The decrease in total revenues was primarily attributable to a $12.5 million pre-tax gain on the sale of an option to purchase notes payable in 2010 and a $6.6 million decrease in operating lease revenue in the first quarter of 2011, partially offset by $1.2 million of equity earnings from unconsolidated joint ventures. The decrease in operating lease revenue from $54.2 million in 2010 to $47.6 million in 2011 was primarily attributable to $3.6 million of end of lease revenues on aircraft whose leases expired in 2010 and $2.9 million in operating lease revenue from the four aircraft that were sold during 2010, partially offset by $1.6 million in revenue from two new Boeing 737-800 aircraft purchased in late 2010 and early 2011. Total expenses in the first quarter of 2011 were $46.2 million compared to $47.1 million in the first quarter of 2010.<br />
<br />
Available Cash Flow (ACF), which FLY defines as net income plus depreciation, lease incentive amortization, amortization of debt issue costs, non-cash equity based compensation, the deferred tax provision and other one-time, non-cash items, was $28.3 million for the first quarter of 2011 compared to $45.0 million for the same period in the previous year. The decrease is primarily due to the decline in net income caused by the 2010 gain associated with the sale of the debt purchase option. ACF per share was $1.07 for the first quarter of 2011 compared to $1.49 in the same period of 2010.<br />
<br />
At March 31, 2011, FLY’s total assets were $2.0 billion, including flight equipment with a net book value of $1.6 billion. Restricted and unrestricted cash at March 31, 2011 totaled $306.5 million, of which $139.8 million was unrestricted. These amounts compare to total cash of $329.0 million and unrestricted cash of $164.1 million at December 31, 2010.<br />
<br />
<br />
<i>Airline News<br />
ROYAL JORDANIAN FIRST 787 DELIVERY DELAYED TO FIRST-QUARTER 2014 <br />
<b></b></i>Royal Jordanian (RJ) has confirmed to shareholders that its first 787 delivery is now scheduled for the first-quarter of 2014 and now hopes to receive three in 2014 and eight in 2016 and 2017.<br />
<br />
RJ currently has orders with Boeing for seven and lease agreements for two from CIT Aerospace and two from ILFC. All of which will be powered by GE Aviation GEnx engines. The 787s were purchased to replace its Airbus A320s and A340-200s.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Airline News<br />
SKYWEST REPORTS NET LOSS FOR THE FIRST QUARTER <br />
<i></i></b>SkyWest, the Utah-based parent of regionals SkyWest Airlines, Atlantic Southeast Airlines and ExpressJet, has reported a first-quarter net loss of $11.1 million. This is the first time the airline group has posted a net loss.<br />
<br />
Although this was well down on the same period last year, where the airline group posted a $15 million profit, it was better than SkyWest’s predictions. Bradford Rich, executive vice president and CFO said that the gloomy results were a direct result of the severe winter storms early in the year which meant the airlines flew significantly less.<br />
<br />
Revenues for the first quarter was up 37% to $866 million, driven by the addition of ExpressJet. Expenses rose 47% to $865.7 million, which put the group’s operating income on $227,000, much less than the $42.4 million operating profit in same quarter a year ago.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the ExpressJet acquisition, consolidated traffic jumped 48% to 6.4 billion RPMs on a 53% rise in capacity to 8.6 billion ASMs, producing a load factor of 74.9%, down 2.2 points. Yield dipped 8.4% to 13.1 cents as RASM lowered 9.8% to 10.1 cents and CASM decreased 4.6% to 10.3 cents.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>ALASKA AIRLINES OFFERS BONUS MILES TO BOOST FREQUENT FLIER MEMBERS<br />
<i></i></b>Alaska Airlines offering tens of thousands of bonus miles to fliers willing to join its frequent-flier program and take a flight by October 1. Passengers located in North California that sign up to the carrier’s Mileage Plan can earn up to 25,000 bonus miles when they take a round-trip flight by that date.<br />
<br />
"This offer is exclusively for our customers in Northern California and represents one of the most generous Alaska Airlines Mileage Plan offers since the program began in 1983," says Joe Sprague, Alaska’s vice president of marketing.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<i>JACKSON SQUARE AVIATION ANNOUNCES AIRBUS A320-232 DELIVERY TO WIZZ AIR<br />
<b></b></i>Jackson Square Aviation has delivered the first of three Airbus A320-232 aircraft to Wizz Air (Hungary) under a long-term operating lease.<br />
<br />
“Wizz Air is an important customer in the high-growth region of Central and Eastern Europe,” said Chris Dailey, JSA’s VP of marketing responsible for the region. “We were able to structure a package for Wizz in 2010 which included PDP financing at a time when few lessors could step up to such a commitment. We have two more A320s delivering to Wizz Air in the coming months are thrilled to add these aircraft to our growing portfolio.”<br />
<br />
József Váradi, chief executive officer of Wizz Air commented: “The deliveries of new Airbus A320s are further strengthening our market-leader position in Central and Eastern Europe. We are pleased to add JSA into our diversified financing portfolio.”<br />
<br />
Jackson Square Aviation is a full-service aircraft leasing company based in San Francisco with offices in Seattle, London, Toulouse and Miami, with an Asian office opening later in 2011. JSA’s current fleet (owned and committed) includes nearly 70 aircraft valued in excess of $3 billion, originated via sale/leasebacks with many of the world’s leading airlines.<br />
<br />
Led by the seasoned aircraft leasing trio of Richard Wiley, Toby Bright and Scott Weiss, the team has collectively acquired over $11 billion of aircraft, has purchased and/or remarketed over 400 aircraft, and has developed relationships with over 30 commercial lenders and investment banks across Europe, Asia and North America.<br />
<br />
Wizz Air carried more than 10 million passengers in the last 12 months. The airline’s fleet currently consists of 35 Airbus A320 aircraft operating from 15 bases in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Czech Republic, Serbia and Lithuania.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Regulatory News<br />
INDIAN GUJARAT GOVERNMENT REDUCES AVIATION FUEL TAX <br />
<i></i></b>The Gujarat government has sharply reduced tax on aeroplane fuel for flights operating within the state to encourage intra-state aviation. Value-added tax on Aviation Turbine Fuel was cut from 30% to 4% for all non-scheduled flights days after the state called on Deccan Charters to start intra-state aviation service.<br />
<br />
Corporates operating own flights in the state can now save up to 20% on fuel costs. Fuel cost constitutes around 40% of the total operating cost of an airline. Business groups like Adani, Reliance, Essar, United Phosphorous, Sterling, Electrotherm among others regularly use own planes in the state.<br />
<br />
Aviation experts say the decision will boost business travel and tourism within the state. Gujarat is among the top three states that attract highest domestic investments.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-47640619331751197032011-04-14T23:02:00.000-07:002011-04-14T23:46:14.904-07:00ABOUT ORVILLE WRIGHT<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxVcpaIdL7NnlLZY2DPzybOJkGvASgATO0wNfr6nx5JTfh8Wwz81xLRaq2FgyP4NiKo1j8COnOliyvo3z4OizjQE639T81YGzEV5UWlOO6DMEexE3W1wBGVCyBG9akHmuUgipeQCxQnSg/s1600/orville+wright.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear:right; float:right; margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:1em"><img border="0" height="320" width="247" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxVcpaIdL7NnlLZY2DPzybOJkGvASgATO0wNfr6nx5JTfh8Wwz81xLRaq2FgyP4NiKo1j8COnOliyvo3z4OizjQE639T81YGzEV5UWlOO6DMEexE3W1wBGVCyBG9akHmuUgipeQCxQnSg/s320/orville+wright.jpg" /></a></div><br />
<br />
<br />
Orville Wright (1871–1948), American aeronautical engineer famous for his role in the first controlled, powered flight in a heavier-than-air machine and for his participation in the design of the aircraft's control system. Wright worked closely with his brother, Wilbur Wright, in designing and flying the Wright airplanes. <br />
Orville Wright was born in Dayton, Ohio. He and Wilbur attended high school in Dayton, but neither boy formally graduated from high school. While in high school the brothers developed an interest in mechanical things, taught themselves mathematics, and read as much as they could about current developments in engineering. They also made some attempts at editing and printing small local newspapers. In 1892 the brothers formed the Wright Cycle Company; for the next ten years they designed, built, and sold bicycles.<br />
The exploits of Otto Lilienthal, the German pioneer of gliders, inspired the Wrights to begin exploring the possibilities of powered flight in the 1890s. Lilienthal's death in an 1896 glider crash convinced the brothers that they not only must build successful airplanes, but must also learn to fly them correctly. During the next few years, they focused on controlling the direction and stability of an airborne object. In August 1899 they flew a kite with a wingspan of about 1.5 m (about 4.9 ft) and with controls for warping (twisting) the wings to control direction and stability. Their wing-warping method was the forerunner of the later idea of ailerons, flaps that can move independently of airplane wings to steer and stabilize the airplane (see Airplane: Control Components).<br />
In 1900 the Wrights built a larger kite with a 5-m (17-ft) wingspan that could carry a pilot. They chose to test their craft near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, because the site had suitable steady winds and sandy banks, which would minimize the impact of the craft and pilot upon landing. The kite flew well and Wilbur achieved a few seconds of piloted flight. The following July they returned to Kitty Hawk and built a wooden winged sled at Kill Devil Hills, where there were large sand dunes. Their new machine was longer and had a different wing shape than the previous model. It also had a hand-operated elevator attached to the horizontal tail stabilizer. Again they achieved encouraging results, particularly after further alterations to the wing arch, but there were still problems with stability and control.<br />
During the following winter Orville Wright designed and built a small wind tunnel and tested various wing designs and arches. In the course of these tests the Wrights compiled the first accurate tables of lift and drag, the important parameters that govern flight and stability. By winter’s end the brothers had built a new glider that had a 10-m (32-ft) wingspan and had, at first, a double vertical fin mounted behind the wings. Turning was still difficult, however, and they converted the fin to a single movable rudder operated by the wing-warping controls. This configuration proved so successful that they decided to attempt powered flight the following summer. During the winter of 1902 they searched in vain for a suitable engine for their craft and for information about propeller design. They eventually constructed their own 8.9-kilowatt (12-horsepower) motor and made their own efficient propeller. After some initial trouble with the propeller shafts, the so-called Wright biplane took to the air and made a successful flight on December 17, 1903, at Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk. The airplane had a wingspan of 12 m (39 ft) and weighed 340 kg (750 lb), including the pilot. The two brothers took turns flying the plane. Orville made the first successful flight, which lasted 12 seconds.<br />
The following year the Wrights incorporated a 12-kilowatt (16-horsepower) engine and separated the wing-warping controls from the rudder controls. They flew this new aircraft at their home town of Dayton, learning to make longer flights and tighter turns.<br />
In 1905 the Wrights had enough confidence in their design to offer it to the United States War Department. The following year they patented their control system of elevator, rudder, and wing-warping. Although they spent time patenting and finding markets for their machines during the next few years, they did not exhibit them publicly until 1908. That year Orville demonstrated the airplanes in the United States, setting several records when he kept the plane aloft for more than an hour on September 9. In 1909 the Wrights demonstrated their airplanes in Europe. The United States and European governments put in many orders for Wright airplanes, and the Wrights needed a manufacturing plant. In 1909 they formed the Wright Company to manufacture their airplanes.<br />
Orville became president of the Wright Company after Wilbur’s death in 1912, but in 1915 he sold his interest in the company to pursue aviation research. He eventually became a member of the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics. By the time of his death Wright had received many awards and honors for the momentous achievement of the Wright brothers.<br />
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<b><br />
QUICK FACTS</b><br />
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Orville Wright<br />
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<b>American aviation pioneer and aeronautical engineer</b><br />
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<b>Birth </b> August 19, 1871<br />
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<b>Death </b> January 30, 1948 Place of Birth Dayton, Ohio <br />
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<b>Known as</b> Coinventor of the airplane, and the first person to fly a powered machine <br />
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<b>Milestones</b> 1899 With his brother, Wilbur, built a glider that had independent controls for twisting the ends of the wings—the forerunners of ailerons, used to control rolling and banking <br />
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1900 With his brother constructed a glider that could carry a pilot<br />
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1901 Constructed a wind tunnel with his brother and tested about 200 wing designs <br />
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December 17, 1903 Became the first person to fly a powered aircraft, staying in the air for 12 seconds at Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina <br />
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1905 Offered the airplane to the U.S. War Department, and was declined <br />
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1906 Obtained a patent for the airplane with his brother <br />
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1908 Completed the first airplane for the U.S. Army; it crashed, and an identical craft was tested and accepted in 1909 <br />
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1909 Established the Wright Company with his brother to manufacture airplanes <br />
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1915 Sold his interest in the airplane manufacturing company<br />
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Did You Know When the Civil Aeronautics Authority was established, Orville received Honorary Pilot Certificate # 1 in 1940. Orville never graduated from high school. Orville and Wilbur designed and sold bicycles for a living before their invention gained recognition.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-10674359479972661322011-04-09T15:30:00.000-07:002011-04-09T15:36:26.091-07:00BLACK BOX<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFn-4N4TEsL6utgUjFSdQLedUQcBaYNBu25QXVYiQSqoWPUTDwNumjDF6ONjz1KwE2Y0c0oN-dBVmX689qxUfYH3-niLMowqSRLNY-BJsFWUPx2GGpR80OG4TWvB_5724W9FO3f4No-M4/s1600/black+box.jpg"><img style="float:right; margin:0 0 10px 10px;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFn-4N4TEsL6utgUjFSdQLedUQcBaYNBu25QXVYiQSqoWPUTDwNumjDF6ONjz1KwE2Y0c0oN-dBVmX689qxUfYH3-niLMowqSRLNY-BJsFWUPx2GGpR80OG4TWvB_5724W9FO3f4No-M4/s320/black+box.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5593716286232208418" /></a><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">BLACK BOX</span><br /><br /> <br />Flight data recorders (FDRs) and cockpit voice recorders (CVRs), commonly known as black boxes, are devices used to investigate the cause of an aviation accident. Orange-painted and crash-proofed, FDRs and CVRs preserve vital information, such as the airplane’s speed and altitude, and conversations between the pilot, copilot, and air traffic controllers.<br />When an aviation accident occurs, investigators from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) often use the information collected by the FDR to create a computer animation of the accident. Combined with the conversations and noises recorded by the CVR, this animation often assists the NTSB in reconstructing the events that led to the accident.<br />The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires all commercial aircraft capable of carrying 10 passengers or more to have FDRs and CVRs on board. Most FDRs and CVRs record data on either metallic tape or computer chips.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;"><br />Flight Data Recorders</span><br /><br />FDRs record information such as the time, altitude, airspeed, heading (the direction in which the aircraft is traveling), and engine performance. FDRs also record the positions of the aircraft’s controls (such as flaps and stabilizers) and information that indicates whether the aircraft was pointed down or up, or rolling to the side. These various pieces of information are called parameters. FDRs typically record in a 25-hour loop. After 25 hours the oldest data is overwritten with new data.<br />FDRs help investigators reconstruct the final moments before an accident. In the case of USAir Flight 427, which crashed in September 1994 killing all 132 people on board, the last minute of FDR data indicated that the aircraft began yawing (swiveling on its vertical axis) and rolling to the left as it approached the airport in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. This information contributed to the investigators’ conclusion that the cause of the accident was probably a disabling rudder malfunction that resulted in a loss of control.<br />By order of the FAA, aircraft manufactured before October 1991 and capable of transporting 20 or more people must carry FDRs capable of recording a minimum of 17 different parameters by 2001. Similar aircraft manufactured after October 1991 must carry FDRs capable of recording 34 parameters by 2001. Beginning in 2000, newly manufactured aircraft must carry FDRs that record 57 parameters, and by 2002 they must carry FDRs that record 88 parameters. These new parameters will include information such as the status of the airplane’s cabin pressure and computer systems. The requirements are slightly different for aircraft capable of transporting less than 20 people.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Cockpit Voice Recorders</span><br /><br />CVRs typically monitor four channels: the pilot and copilot’s microphones, radio communications with the aircraft, and the cockpit area microphone (CAM, typically located on the overhead instrument panel). CVRs record on a 30-minute loop. After 30 minutes, the oldest data is overwritten with new data.<br />The CVR provides information indicating how the pilots reacted to the circumstances that led to the accident. In the case of Flight 427, the CVR recording suggested that the rudder malfunction caught the flight crew by surprise. In other cases, the CVR may reveal that the flight crew was aware of the problem that led to the accident. An analysis of these recordings can help investigators determine whether the pilots reacted appropriately to the situation. CVR recordings can also help investigators determine if the pilots were misinformed by or misunderstood instructions from air traffic controllers, ignored crucial warnings, or were confused by weather conditions or other phenomena.<br />The CAM records cockpit noise. Many aircraft instruments are equipped to give off sounds that serve as warnings to pilots. Examples include warning noises that the airplane is flying too low or is about to stall (lose its lift). These sounds add to investigators’ understanding of the scene aboard the aircraft.<br />The NTSB often releases transcripts of CVR recordings. But the Congress of the United States does not allow the NTSB to release the actual recordings in deference to the families of the flight crew.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Making Sure the Data Survives</span><br /><br />To ensure that the data recorded by FDRs and CVRs survive any accident, the recorders are typically housed in steel or titanium cases. Both recorders are usually located in an airplane’s tail section and are powered by generators run by the airplane’s engines. The recorders stop when this power supply is interrupted.<br />The FAA sets rigorous standards for FDRs and CVRs. The recorders must be able to withstand 3,400 G forces (one G force equals the force of gravity at Earth's surface) for 6.5 milliseconds. They must also be able to survive exposure to temperatures of 1100° C (2000° F, the temperature at which jet fuel burns) for 30 minutes. In case of a crash into deep water, the recorders must be able to survive for 30 days at depths up to 6,000 m (20,000 ft).<br />Both FDRs and CVRs are painted bright orange and fitted with reflective strips to make them easier to find amid the wreckage of a crash site. If a crash occurs in deep water, investigators can locate the recorders by homing in on transmissions from their underwater locator beacons (ULBs). Also known as pingers, ULBs give off a pinging sound that can be tracked with sonar. Activated upon immersion in water, ULBs are required to transmit for at least 30 days.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-46549224398082984642011-04-09T15:26:00.000-07:002011-04-09T15:27:29.211-07:00AVIATION LAW<span style="font-weight:bold;"> <br />I. INTRODUCTION</span><br />Aviation Law, body of international and domestic law governing various aspects of civil aviation. Agreements concerning activities in space have also been established.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;"><br />II. INTERNATIONAL LAW</span><br />The importance of modern aviation was recognized during World War II, when a conference was convened in Chicago in 1944 to discuss regulation of postwar international civil aviation. The resulting Chicago Convention of 1944 codified public international aviation law. Contracting nations adopted international regulations, standards, and procedures for the use of communication systems and air navigation aids; for airport characteristics; for rules of the air and air traffic control; for airworthiness of aircraft; for licensing of operating and mechanical personnel; for aeronautical maps and charts; for log books; and for measures to facilitate air navigation.<br />The established principle that every nation has complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory was reaffirmed. Every civil aircraft in international aviation must be registered, carry the nationality of the country of registration, and bear appropriate identification markings. The convention granted transit rights (that is, the right to fly over another nation's territory and the right to land there for nontraffic purposes, such as refueling) and permitted nonscheduled, charter, and private flights.<br />A similar arrangement in traffic rights (to pick up and set down passengers, cargo, and mail) was not adopted, and bilateral negotiations had to be carried out to effect such arrangements. The American principle of “freedom of the air” and the British principle of “order in the air” were reconciled in 1946 in Bermuda at a meeting between the United States and Britain. Subsequent bilateral agreements are based on the so-called Bermuda Principles covering the regulation of routes, capacity, and tariff.<br />Another outcome of the Chicago conference was the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which was formally established in 1947 as an agency of the United Nations (UN) to foster development and promote cooperation in international civil aviation. The organization has a legal committee that is responsible for producing treaties, conventions, and protocols in those areas of aviation in which uniformity is desirable.<br />A basic agreement in international aviation law is the Warsaw Convention of 1929. This convention provided for presumptive but limited liability of an air carrier for personal injury or death of a passenger and damage to goods in international air carriage. Liability for death or personal injury to a passenger was limited to $8,300. The Hague Protocol was adopted in 1965. Constituting a series of amendments to the Warsaw Convention, the protocol doubles the liability limit. The United States was not a party to the conference at Warsaw that produced the Warsaw Convention, but adhered to it in 1934. By 1969 it had not ratified or adhered to The Hague Protocol. In 1965, indeed, the United States gave notice of its intention to denounce the Warsaw Convention because of its low limit of liability. The Americans withdrew this notice, however, when air carriers, under the auspices of the International Air Transport Association (IATA), a trade association, agreed to raise this limit to $75,000 with respect to passengers traveling to or from or passing through the United States. This so-called Montréal Agreement was then incorporated in airline tariffs, which were accepted by the national Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). A new treaty, the Guatemala Protocol to the Warsaw Convention, was enacted. It was signed by the United States in 1970. The protocol provided for absolute liability on the part of the airline as well as for an unbreakable limitation of damages to $100,000. The Guatemala Protocol was later amended to provide that the limit would be 100,000 Special Drawing Rights (units of international monetary exchange administered by the International Monetary Fund). This new treaty, entitled the Montréal Protocols 3 and 4, was denied ratification by the U.S. Senate in 1983.<br />The ICAO's legal committee, in 1963, produced the Tokyo Convention, dealing with offenses committed on aircraft. The many aircraft hijackings since 1968 brought pressure to ratify the treaty, and in May 1969 the U.S. Senate consented to the convention's ratification. More stringent security measures for international flights were called for in an amendment to the Chicago Convention adopted by the ICAO council in 1985.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;"><br />III. NATIONAL LAW</span><br />All countries have aviation legislation designed to conform to the international rules. In the United States, domestic law is embodied in the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 and the resulting federal aviation regulations. The Department of Transportation assumed some of the duties of the CAB, and that agency was disbanded by 1985. States have their own local rules on intrastate air traffic.<br />Aircraft noise was the subject of a law enacted by the federal government in 1968, giving the administrator of the Federal Aviation Administration the authority to set noise limitations for new aircraft and to order equipment that would reduce noise of existing aircraft. Thus, supersonic aircraft (SSTs) were required to fly over U.S. territory at subsonic speeds in the 1970s.<br />Aviation security came under greater legal scrutiny following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States in which hijackers crashed two commercial jetliners into the World Trade Center in New York City and another into the Pentagon in Arlington, Virginia, outside Washington, D.C. The United States Congress enacted the Aviation and Transportation Security Act in November 2001 in response to the attacks, which exposed a number of weaknesses in airport and airline security. The new law expanded the number of baggage screeners, imposed standards for their training, and made them federal employees for an interim period of time. Beginning in January 2002 it required that all passenger luggage, including checked luggage, be screened. The law also stipulated that all luggage be put through special explosives-detecting devices by the end of 2002. In addition, the law increased the number of armed federal air marshals flying on domestic flights and required international airlines to turn over advance copies of passenger lists to U.S. Customs officials for the purpose of performing background checks to screen out suspected terrorists.<br />The new law required flight instructors to report the names of any foreign nationals seeking training on aircraft weighing more than 5,600 kg (12,500 lb)—at least the size of a business-class jet. A number of hijackers, who were all foreign nationals, had attended flight training schools in Florida. Flight instructors were required to report the names to the U.S. attorney general’s office for screening, and the attorney general’s office was mandated to review the background of any foreign national seeking to sell, lease, or charter a plane weighing more than 5,600 kg.<br />IV. SPACE LAW<br />The flights of unmanned and manned space vehicles that began in 1957 highlighted the necessity for some legal recognition of spacecraft and activities in space. The UN appointed a Committee for Peaceful Uses of Outer Space in 1959. Its 1967 Outer Space Treaty codified accepted principles of international law relating to outer space and established the proposition that outer space is not subject to national appropriation and is to be used only for peaceful purposes—a proposition disturbed in the early 1980s by U.S. president Ronald W. Reagan's proposal of a space-based defense system (see Strategic Defense Initiative). A 1968 treaty dealt with astronaut rescue and return and the return of objects launched into space. This treaty provided for the safe and prompt return to the launching state of any personnel of a spacecraft, any space object, or any component part that lands in the territory of another contracting state as a result of accident or other emergency.<br />In 1971 the UN enacted a space liability treaty providing that the launching country would be absolutely liable to pay compensation for loss of life, injury, or damage to property resulting from objects launched into space by that country. A 1974 treaty required registration of space objects with the UN. A 1979 treaty dealing with commercial exploitation of the Moon, however, aroused controversy and has not yet been ratified by the United States and several other nations. The United States has also made several bilateral arrangements concerning space allocations for communications satellites and the use of data from other applications satellites.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-21879937589880255762011-04-08T19:54:00.000-07:002011-04-08T20:07:05.885-07:00VIRGIN ATLANTIC MAY NEED TO MERGE TO SURVIVE<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYUWoyoOegIX2qOX95jUCWsJgOCLEFMeCR88tAnDalL1E4D5cdNNaKU5Ovqbc2f7ENDlEGQX7AJwkjT4tIQsZJBeS3Gy72Gm2oKIH1f-z8bqSe_ngBj8vAooGFGxiZiTreMqlh_UchpJM/s1600/128819.jpg"><img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 320px; height: 218px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYUWoyoOegIX2qOX95jUCWsJgOCLEFMeCR88tAnDalL1E4D5cdNNaKU5Ovqbc2f7ENDlEGQX7AJwkjT4tIQsZJBeS3Gy72Gm2oKIH1f-z8bqSe_ngBj8vAooGFGxiZiTreMqlh_UchpJM/s320/128819.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5593414420331719010" /></a><br /><br />Virgin Atlantic may need to merge with a rival or join an airline alliance to survive in the increasingly competitive world of aviation, which has been changed by the advent of <br />cross – border super carriers.<br /><br /><br /><br />After falling behind in European consolidation following Air France’s merger with Dutch – based KLM, Lufthansa’s recent tie – ups and last year’s BA – Iberia merger, Virgin needs a partner or else could be left behind.<br /><br />The airline formed in 1984 by British billionaire <span style="font-weight:bold;">Richard Branson</span>, who still owns a 51 percent stake through his Virgin Group, has attracted admiring glances from a number of rivals.<br /><br />Singapore Airlines is looking to sell its 49 percent stake in Virgin, which has hired Deutsche Bank to conduct a strategic review that could lead to a whole or partial sale or to Virgin joining an airline alliance.<br /><br />Here are some scenarios for how events could unfold.<br /><br />Virgin could face a takeover approach with industry analysts seeing a bid as most likely to come from a combination of Air France – KLM -- Europe’s largest airline by revenue -- and US carrier Delta Airlines, which has been working with <span style="font-weight:bold;">Goldman Sachs </span>to identify possible targets for several months.<br /><br />Air France – KLM and Delta would be keen to get hold of Virgin’s 288 take off and landing slots at London’s Heathrow airport – three percent of the airport’s total -- to help them add more services to the United States and Asia from Europe’s busiest hub.<br /><br />Abu Dhabi’s Etihad Airways has also expressed interest, though European Union rules state the region’s carriers must be under European control, meaning any move for Virgin would have to involve an EU airline.<br /><a href="http://www.myaviationworld.page.tl"></a>Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-24245978491378341102011-03-31T11:11:00.001-07:002016-01-29T20:44:14.973-08:00IATA GLOBAL INDICATORFares vary not only by class of service or fare type but also by routing type as represented by global indicators (G.I).<br />
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For example, an economy or Y fare from Seattle (SEA) to Fukuoka (FUK) via the Atlantic would be higher than the fare paid by the passenger if he traveled via the Pacific.<br />
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In order to quote the correct fare, one will need to know the type of routing the passenger is taking.<br />
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There are 11 global indicators that airline tickets can be issued on.<br />
1) WH OR TC1 <br />
2) EH OR TC2 <br />
3) EH OR TC3 <br />
4) AT OR TC12<br />
5) PA OR TC31 <br />
6) PN OR TC31 <br />
7) SA OR TC123 <br />
8) AP OR TC23<br />
9) RU OR TC23<br />
10)TS OR TC23 <br />
11) FE OR TC23 <br />
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Passengers should endeavor to meet or get their airline ticket through their Travel Agents so as to get cheaper fare quote. And also to get the ticket terms and conditions, flight notices and condition of carriage from the carrier.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-45938291818296764542011-03-30T06:23:00.000-07:002011-03-30T06:50:23.867-07:00WARSAW/MONTREAL CONVENTIONMany European countries converged in Warsaw in Poland for a meeting in 1929. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss means and ways compensation could be given to dependant of the people of travel public who die or physically disable during plane crash. This as a matter of fact limit the liability of airline to airline passenger. The top limit agreed in Warsaw in 1929 was USD 8,300, this was based on cost of living of such affected people. Since the cost of living is not uniform in all over the world, an agreement came up about top limit award to review the Warsaw agreement. American found the top limit of USD 8,300 too small, as a result, another meeting was held in Montreal, Canada the same year to review the Warsaw limit award. The result of which is as follows: (a) USD 75,000 per person to be awarded in respect of air crash in America or in the country where the court determine the lawyer fee. (b) The beneficiaries of Warsaw convention are the dependants of the deceased of the air crash and also people who are physically disable. (c) USD 58,000 per person to be awarded in America or in the country where the court does not determine the lawyer fee. <br /><div align="center"><em>THE IMPORTANCE OF WARSAW/MONTREAL CONVENTION</em></div><br /><div align="left"><em>1. It assures the Airline Travel Public of claim in case of plane crash.</em></div><br /><div align="left"><em>2. It is an advantage to the airline because the amount is fixed.</em></div><br /><div align="left"><em>3. It tends to improve technical standardization of the Airline concerned.</em></div><br /><div align="left"><em>4. It limits the Airline liability to air travel public</em></div><br /><div align="left"><em></em></div><br /><div align="left"><em></em></div><br /><div align="center"><em>CONCLUSION</em></div><br /><div align="left"><em>Air Passengers should be rest assured that the dependants are entitled to compensation after air crash although we are not praying for disaster in Aviation Industry but it will allow the Airline to improve the technical and mechanical standardization of their fleets.</em></div>Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-3774817212807448752007-09-16T04:08:00.000-07:002007-09-16T04:16:25.776-07:00Tourism And National DevelopmentTourism is very significant in the national development of countries. The volume of the tourists at a given time in a country and the rate of foreign exchange earning of the country.<br /><br />however, a good indication of economy significance of tourism may be derived by relating expenditure generated by tourist in a total gross national products (GNP).<br />The assessment of the value of tourism to the economy of the will be determined by the relative or alternative investment project.Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-58142793382065857392007-06-09T16:59:00.000-07:002007-06-09T17:00:22.026-07:00VIP Community<script type="text/javascript"><!--amazon_id="";format="160*160";//--></script><script type="text/javascript" src="Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-46831076992214446712007-06-06T14:08:00.000-07:002007-06-06T14:19:44.808-07:00Tourism<em><strong>Tourism</strong></em><br /><em>Tourism is the temporal movement of people to destination outside the normal place of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in these destinations and the facilities created to cater for their needs.</em><br /><em></em><br /><em>Tourism itself is only one part of the spectrum of travel which form daily travel to work for shopping, where the traveler intend to take up permanent or long term residence in another area.</em><br /><em></em><br /><em>The <strong>Importance</strong> and the <strong>Advantages </strong>of <strong>Tourism</strong></em><br /><em>1) Generation of Revenue</em><br /><em>2) Civilisation of Culture and Custom</em><br /><em>3) Foreign Earnings</em><br /><em>4) Provision of Employment</em>Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7492317711478478303.post-31829421838860933822007-06-04T14:44:00.001-07:002007-06-04T14:44:46.505-07:00Aircraft as a major basis of Aviation<strong>Nowadays, the rate at which aircrafts now crashlanding and ditchlanding is alarming.</strong><br /><br /><br /><br />who is to blame?<br /><br />I keep asking this particular question from myself everytime especially when an aircrash is being discovered or reported.<br /><br /><br /><br />1) The aeronautic engineer<br /><br />2) Metereological Officer<br /><br />3) Pilot<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>1)</strong> <strong>The aeronautic engineer:</strong><br /><br />Before the embarkation of any Aircraft to any destination, there should be a thourough check by the aeronautic engineer by checking the areas like "flaps, aileron,Spoiler" and etc for a fault.<br /><br />The Engineer has every reasons and rights to stop any aircraft discovered to be faulty.<br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>2) Metereological officer:</strong><br /><br />These are the people in the control tower monitoring the climatic condition and the atmosphere, if they discovered that the weather is not favourable or bad, they have every right to cancel any journey slated for that time till the time the weather is alright.<br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>3) Pilot:</strong><br /><br />Pilot is the major character in this article, he has a lot of roles to play as he is the one who is handling all the lifes of the passengers on board and the crew members including himself.<br /><br />He has to take alot of measures in ensuring that adequates and proper check is being done on the aircraft before his embarkation.<br /><br />After the the aeronautic engineers had finished their own work on the aircraft, he still have to check and test the aircraft to ensure good functions.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><strong>LAXITY:</strong><br /><br /><strong></strong><br /><br /><strong>Aeronautic Engineers, Pilots, Metereological Officers</strong><br /><br /><strong></strong><br /><br /><strong>It is quite unfortunate that none of this major characters are committed and dedicated to the job they were employed for.</strong><br /><br /><strong></strong><br /><br /><strong>MEASURE:</strong><br /><br /><strong></strong><br /><br /><strong>Goverment should please set up an AGENCY which will be checking each sector of this 3major characters because i wish to state categorically that Air Transportation is the best and only the safest way of travel but the way being handled makes People to be scared.</strong><br /><br /><strong></strong><br /><br /><strong>This needs to be corrected.</strong>Tangolistichttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10205497137257960978noreply@blogger.com2